MILITARY SURVIVAL MANUAL:VOL 10

UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS
Mountain Warfare Training Center
Bridgeport, California 93517-5001
EVASION PLAN OF ACTION FORMAT
1. Individuals completing EPAs should not une the statement “PER SAR SPINS (Special
Instructions) as a substitute for this document. Such a statement fails to provide recovery
forces with the information required and provides no concrete data with which to plan a
recovery operation.
2. EPAs should contain the following minimum information. Inclusion of this prescribed
information into one document enhances operational effectiveness and precludes the
possibility that critical information might not be available in a time-sensitive situation. These
documents must be classified to at least the level of the operation order for the mission they
support. Paragraphs must be individually classified to the appropriate level.
a. Indentification
(1) Name and rank of each individual.
(2) Mission number, aircraft, or call sign.
b. Planned Route of Flight or Travel.
(1) Route points must be describe in the EPA for both ingress and egress.
(2) Describe inflight emergency plans for each leg of the mission.
c. Immediate Evasion Actions and/or Intentions for the First 48 hours, Uninjured (for
example):
(1) Hide near aircraft site or area of separation from unit (distance and heading).
(2) Evade alone or link-up with others at rally point.
(3) Travel plans (distance, duration or time, speed, and other such details).
(4) Intended actions and/or length of stay at initial hiding location.
d. Immediate Evasion Actions and/or Intentions, If Injured.
(1) Provide hiding intentions if injured.
(2) Provide evasion intentions if injured.
(3) Provide travel intentions if injured.
A-1
Appendix A
(4) Provide intended actions at hiding locations if injured.
e. Extended Evasion Actions and/or Intentions After 48 hours.
(1) Destination (SAFE, mountain range, coast, border, FEBA).
(2) Travel routes, plans, and/or techniques (either written and/or sketched).
(3) Actions and/or intentions at potential contact or recovery locations.
(4) Recovery/contact point signals, signs, and/or procedures (written out and/or
sketched).
(5) Back-up plans, if any, for the above.
3. The following information should be completed by appropriate communications and/or
signal, intelligence personnel and attached to the EPA.
a. Communications and Authentication.
(1) Codewords.
(2) Available communications and signaling devices.
(3) Primary communication schedule, procedures, and/or frequencies (first 48
hours and after 48 hours).
(4) Back-up communication schedule, procedures, and/or frequencies.
b. In addition to the above minimum required information, units may wish to include the
following optional information:
(1) Weapons and ammunition carried.
(2) Personal evasion kit items.
(3) Listing of issue survival and evasion kit items.
(4) Mission evasion preparation checklist
(5) Signature of reviewing official.
A-2
Appendix A
PME VIDEO GUIDED DISCUSSION
“THE EDGE”
BREAK AT THE FLIGHT TO FIND THE INDIAN
1. Discuss the bear threat, emphasize bivouac routine and food storage.
2. Discuss amount of available sunlight in northern latitudes (winter/summer).
3. Discuss book knowledge vs. skills.
4. Explain the Taiga Ecosystem and where it ranges in the world.
BREAK AFTER THE FIRST DAY
1. Discuss their “mind-set/attitude” at the cabin - childish & unprepared with no survival
kit.
2. What should their first concern be after the cold water immersion?
3. “Any one got matches?” - How did they stay dry?
4. What tinder did they have for their fire? Witches hair should have been used.
5. What priorities of work did they accomplish?
BREAK AT THE NIGHT FIRE
1. “Die of shame”, what natural reaction to stress does it relate to?
2. Watch method/improvised compass - problems for survival navigation.
3. Why was it a good decision to travel?
4. What should they have done prior to traveling?
5. Group survival - Point out how as a group, the weak became strong when they
formulated a plan together & how the weak became strong when tasked.
BREAK AT THE HELO FLYING OVER
B-1
Appendix B
1. Discuss the thatching job on their shelter.
2. Discuss commitment/courage about the bloody bandages. “What difference does it
make?”
3. Discuss snow storms in mountains at any time.
4. Discuss survival signaling - be prepared.
BREAK AFTER THE BEAR KILL
1. Discuss how they passed up enormous food sources.
-Reindeer moss
-Fish
2. Discuss how they should be thinking of long term survival prior to the onset of
winter.
3. Point out how bears run straight through the woods.
4. Point out when a bear will charge: pawing back & forth with head swaying side to
side.
5. Point out that man will not out run a bear.
6. Explain that a mauled survivor was only disciplined by the bear.
DISCUSS AT THE END OF THE MOVIE
1. How tools became important.
2. The feasibility of digging large pit traps.
3. How Anthony Hopkins sat & thought prior to making a decision - “Undue haste
makes waste”.
4. How realistic the amount of bough would create the amount of smoke generated.
5. Discuss finally how knowledge comes first, but knowledge without skills is useless!
B-2
Appendix B
SURVIVAL QUICK REFERENCE CHECKLIST
1. IMMEDIATE ACTIONS
a. Assess immediate situation...THINK BEFORE YOU ACT!
b. Take action to protect yourself from NBC hazards.
c. Seek concealment.
d. Assess medical condition; treat as necessary.
e. Sanitize uniform of potentially compromising information.
f. Sanitize area, hide equipment you are leaving.
g. Apply camouflage.
h. Move away from initial site using patrolling techniques.
I. Use terrain to advantage; cover, concealment, and communication advantage.
j. Find a rally point with the following:
-Cover and concealment.
-Safe distance from enemy positions and Lines of Communication (LOCs).
-Multiple avenues of concealed escape routes.
-Has locations for LPs and OPs.
-Protection from the elements.
-Near a reliable water and fuel source.
-Location for possible communication/signaling opportunities.
2. RALLY POINT
a. Establish security: treat injuries, inventory equipment, improve camouflage.
b. Assess Commanders Intent IAW ability to execute mission.
c. Determine level of combat effectiveness.
d. Develop a course of action using METT-TSL; establish priorities.
e. Execute course of action...stay flexible!
3. MOVEMENT
a. Travel slowly and deliberately.
b. Do not leave evidence of travel, use noise and light discipline.
c. Stay away from LOCs.
d. Use standard patrolling techniques.
C-1
Appendix C
S - Size up the situation, surroundings, physical condition, & equipment.
U - Undue haste makes waste.
R - Remember where you are.
V - Vanquish fear and panic.
I - Improvise & Improve.
V - Value living.
A - Act like the natives.
L - Live by your wits, but for now, Learn Basic Skills.
4. CHANCE CONTACT
a. Only engage the enemy with reasonable chance of success.
b. Use METT-TSL for all engagements.
c. Break contact for all unfavorable engagements.
5. COMMUNICATION AND SIGNALING
a. Communicate per theater communication procedures, particularly when
considering transmitting in the “blind”.
b. Be prepared to use signaling devices on short notice.
c. Execute signaling per mission order.
6. RECOVERY OPERATIONS
a. Select site(s) IAW mission order.
b. Ensure site is free of hazards and enemy.
c. Select best area for communications and signaling devices.
d. Observe site for proximity to enemy activity and LOCs.
e. Follow recovery force instructions.
C-2
Appendix C
ANIMAL HABITS
(1) Coyote and Wolf. Coyotes and wolves often run in family groups,
especially in the early part of the season. When a littermate is caught,
normally other coyotes will return to the set site, so reset traps in the
same area. They are inquisitive, so you want them to smell and see.
Generally they run 3-25 square mile territories, even larger during
periods of rough weather. They will move and congregate around a
good food source until it has been eaten. Some years, natural food
abundance will have them working one species and showing little
interest for other foods and baits. Look at fresh scat and select baits on
what they are eating. Coyotes are found at every elevation and habitat
type in North America while wolves are restricted to northwestern
states. At higher elevations during deep winter snows, coyotes will
move to lower elevations with the deer, elk, and livestock, although
some will tough it out in the deep snow.
(2) Fox. Gray, Red, Prairie Swift, and Desert Kit foxes are found
throughout the U.S. Grays are found in pinion-juniper, cedar, oak
brush, canyon bottoms and hogbacks, cottonwood draws and edges
where these meet. The Red Fox is found in irrigated agricultural lands
along the bases of mountain ranges and prairie rivers, in the high
mountain parks and alpine. The Prairie Swift Fox is found in the
prairie states of this country. The desert kit fox is found in the
southwestern corner states. Both of these species are vary curious. Fox
habits are very much like the coyote.
(3) Bobcat and Lynx. Bobcats are generally found in the west while
Lynx are found in the northwestern states. They compete with coyotes
and sometimes are preyed on by coyotes. Their territory is generally
two square miles. They den in rock caves, deadfalls, hollow trees and
logs. They are sight hunters and use their eyes and ears more than the
sense of smell. They prefer to kill their own food and avoid rotten
carrion. Bobcat can be “pulled” to an area by curiosity lures. They
often avoid large open space.
(4) Raccoon and Opossum. They are located throughout the U.S. They
like a combination of water, old mature trees, buildings and junk piles,
and a consistent food supply like grain or prepared feed.
(5) Ring-tailed Cat. They inhabit watercourses where rocky canyons or
broken rock, erosion holes and rough terrain occurs. They are found in
the western states. Old timers talk of ringtails being fairly abundant
prior to the expansion of the raccoon range and densities during and
after WWII. It is possible that raccoons have replaced the ringtail in
much of its former habitat.
Appendix-D 1
(6) Badger. They are found from above the timberline to the lowest
elevation in the west. They apparently do not tolerate high densities
and generally there are only 3-4 per square mile while running 1-3
square miles. They prefer rodents but take carrion, fruit, insects, roots
and grain. They hole up for long periods during extremely cold
weather, moving just before and after severe weather systems. These
animals can be tracked to dens and snared in the den. They often
inhabit prairie dog towns.
(7) Skunk. Three species are found in the west: striped, spotted, and
hognose. Skunks are located just about everywhere. Their musk is a
prized ingredient for lures.
(8) Weasel. Two species of weasels occur in most of the west: the
ermine or short-tailed, and the long-tailed. They prefer meat and
blood, although sometimes they are caught on peanut butter. Their
body shape is adapted for living and pursuing their prey on the prey’s
own territory, burrows, tunnels, and runways. They have ferocious
appetites and will tackle grouse, rabbits, ducks, and squirrels. They are
inquisitive and can’t pass up examining cavities, knot holes, and
burrow entrances.
(9) Marten. Marten are found in the upper montane and subalpine zones
above 8,000 feet. They generally don’t venture far from the escape
cover of trees. They live on squirrels, rabbits, voles, deer mice, grouse
and other small birds and mammals. There may be as many as 3-5 per
square mile. They like fresh kidney, heart, liver, and spleen for baits.
(10) M ink. They are found in suitable water habitat or marshy ground with
good bank development and undisturbed wetlands vegetation. They
feed on fish, crustaceans, clams, and small mammals and birds. They
will general travel along the stream bank.
(11) B eaver. They are found in almost all water with cottonwood, aspen,
or willow trees. Peak activity of beaver is from September to freeze-up
when they are repairing dams, lodges and building food caches. There
will usually be slides from the water to cutting areas of trees. Their
castor is an excellent additive to lure.
(12) M uskrat. They are found in springs, dugouts, dams, and permanent
pools on intermittent streams, rivers, and irrigation ditches, mountain
lakes and beaver ponds. Their dens are usually below the water line
and into the bank.
(13) B lack Bear. They are found throughout North America. The female
generally has one or two cubs during the winter hibernation. Survival
of the cubs is good since they benefit from at least a year of parental
Appendix-D 2
care. Sows have litters every other year and will not produce cubs until
2 or 3 years of age. They are omnivorous in their feeding, taking what
is available such as insects, rodents, berries, roots, fish, and carrion.
They are inquisitive. Their color can range from black, brown,
cinnamon, to golden.
(14) M ountain Lion. In colonial America the mountain lion, painter,
panther, catamount, or cougar was found throughout the U.S. Much of
their disappearance was due to the clearing of forests and land-use
changes as development progressed. They have litters of 1-6 kittens,
averaging 2-3 normally. These are generally born in late winter and
early spring. Dens are generally caves in rocky country, hollow logs,
windfall trees and various cavities that provide protection from
weather. Males can weigh up to 276 pounds and 175 pounds for
females. They have tremendous strength with reports of mature lions
carrying full-grown deer up cliffs, moving 650-pound cattle, and
carrying adult elk for long distances. They prefer to kill their own food
and disdain soured and decaying carrion. Kills are deep scratches and
gouges on the neck and shoulders, bites and scratches around the neck,
face and eyes. The skin is peeled back and the blood rich liver, spleen,
kidneys, and lungs are eaten first. The muscle tissue is gnawed from
the bones. The lion will normally scratch dirt and plant material over
the kill, leave it and return for a future meal.
(15) R abbits and Hares. There are numerous species located throughout
North America with the Cottontail, Black-Tailed Jack, and the whitetailed
Jack being located in our training area. During winter months,
they will feed on aspen and willow twigs.
Appendix-D 3
UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS
Mountain Warfare Training Center
Bridgeport, California 93517-5001
TACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
If the need arises to implement survival skills in a semi-permissive or non-permissive
environment the Marine must be able to utilize basic skills, as referenced in the Marine Battle
Skills Handbook Pvt – Lcpl, in order to avoid making contact with hostile personnel.
Unfortunately, the enemy will not consider your MOS when deciding whether or not you should
be captured or killed. It is imperative that every Marine live up to statement – “every Marine
is a basic rifleman.”
To discuss every possible survival scenario and enemy situation would be pointless. The
following outline is to be utilized as a guide. Common sense and survival skills, along with
these considerations, will increase your chances of avoiding capture or possible death.
A. Apply the key word survival (ICBT – 20.01) (PVTX.14.16)
1. Size up the situation:
 Mission
What was the mission?
Can the mission still be accomplished?
 Enemy
What is the enemy situation?
 Troops and Fire Support available
Do you have communications with higher?
Is anyone injured? How will they be transported?
How will you communicate with other Marines in your group?
Arm and Hand signals?
 Terrain and Weather
Do you have a map?
Does the terrain offer cover and concealment?
Where is the water?
Do you have protection from the elements?
Is it advantageous to move in current weather?
Will you move in daytime or evening temperatures?
How much illumination is available at night?
 Time, Space, and Logistics
Is it day or night?
Time Distance Formula
What kind of supplies and equipment are available?
2. Undue haste makes waste:
 Should you stay or move from your current position.
E-1
Appendix E
 “Slow is Smooth – Smooth is Fast” i.e. Is there a need to run to the
SAFE or should the requirements of survival be implemented in
route? Security is paramount -is it being sacrificed for speed?
3. Remember where you are:
 Are you in a non-permissive environment?
 What is the terrain like?
 Can you utilize land navigation skills?
4. Vanquish fear and panic:
 Are good decisions being made?
 Is the group completely lost and leaderless?
 BAMCIS
5. Improvise and improve:
 Do you have your survival kit?
 Are litters available or do you have to improvise?
 Do you have the resources to obtain food and water?
 Will your supplies and equipment protect you from the elements?
 Will your supplies and equipment protect you from the enemy?
6. Value living:
 Do you want to lay on your back and put your legs in the air like a dead
cockroach?
7. Act like the natives:
 Observe native habits.
8. Live by your wits, but for now learn basic skills:
 Utilize common sense and basic Marine Corps training.
 Practice skills learned at MWTC.
 Prior planning prevents poor performance.
 Establish E and R plan, brief personnel of contingencies.
B. Additional Individual Training Standards:
 Employ signaling devices (ICBT – 20.03)
 Construct and maintain a fire (ICBT – 20.04)
 What is the tactical situation?
 Prepare a survival kit (ICBT 20.05) (PVTX.14.15)
 Maintain the M16A2 service rifle. (PVTX.11.1)
 Prepare individual equipment for tactical operations. (PVTX.14.1)
 Camouflage self and individual equipment. (PVTX.14.7)
 Transport casualties using manual carries and improvised stretchers.
(PVTX.17.4)
 Maintain physical fitness. (PVTX.20.1)
 Perform individual movement. (PVTX.14.2)
 Participate in a security patrol. (PVTX.13.1)
E-2
Appendix E
 Arm and hand signals.
 Challenge and pass / near and far recognition.
 Rally points.
 Actions on enemy contact
 Security halts.
 Reconnaissance of objectives.
 5 Point Contingency Plan. (GOTWA)
 Going (where)
 Others (who is going with you)
 Time away.
 What happens (you and them)
 Actions taken on enemy contact (you and them)
 React to enemy indirect fire. (PVTX.14.3)
 React to enemy direct fire. (PVTX.20.1)
C. Additional Considerations:
When sizing up the situation you will determine whether the Mission or Cmdr’s
Intent can be accomplished. Obviously, every effort must be made to accomplish the
mission. If it can not be accomplished a separate mission order must be established
for the group. (i.e. At 0900 the group will implement the requirements for survival in
order to move to the SAFE for recovery.)
In order to tactically move and occupy the SAFE, the group must be task organized
into teams. The teams are assigned additional tasks. Team tasks will usually be
accomplished during occupation of the patrol base. In addition, individuals within the
group are assigned tasks.
1. Teams:
 Security. All patrol members should be assigned sectors of fire to include air
sentry.
 Reconnaissance.
 Assault. (may not be implemented)
 Support. (may not be implemented)
2. Team Tasks:
 Water procurement.
 Food gathering.
 Wood gathering. (construction materials, signal, and fire wood.)
 Shelter construction.
 Pathguards.
 Signaling
3. Individual Tasks:
 Point man.
 Navigator.
 Patrol leader and assistant.
E-3
Appendix E
 Flank (left and right) security.
 Two pace men.
 Tail end charlie.
In a survival situation it is probably wiser to occupy the patrol base through
reconnaissance instead of by force. Upon initial occupation the acronym SAFE
(Security, Automatic weapons, Fields of fire, Entrenchment) must be enforced.
The patrol base should only be entered (or exited) from one location.
Communication within the group is essential. Everyone must be well informed.
(i.e. current plans, alternate patrol bases or rally points, how many Marines have
departed the patrol base and when are they expected to return, current challenge
and pass, and near and far recognition signals.) No Marine will exercise their
judgement and leave the patrol base or perform a task without permission from
the patrol leader.
The patrol base is not a place for lollygagging. It is a place where noise and light
discipline is enforced and security is maintained continuously. Priorities of work
will be established after occupation. (i.e. weapon maintenance, hygiene, chow,
and rest plans) Security or reconnaissance teams can be sent out to determine
enemy threat or gather information for route selection. These patrols can also be
tasked with gathering firewood or some other routine task. However, security
must be maintained while the firewood is being collected.
Since you are probably evading the enemy, activity in and around the patrol base
must be limited. Occupation of the patrol base must not exceed 24 hours.
Depending on the tactical situation the use of fire may or may not be appropriate.
D. Conclusion:
The above information servers as a guideline. Survival is a thinking person’s
challenge between life and death. As the situation changes a Marine must adapt, size
up the situation, and implement a new plan in order to survive. If you are lacking in
any of the Individual Training Standards it is your responsible to take corrective
action. Remember that every Marine is a basic rifleman.
E-4
Appendix E
UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS
Mountain Warfare Training Center
Bridgeport, California 93517-5001
WINTER MOUNTAIN SURVIVAL COURSE
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION RECAP SHEET
1. The student must satisfactorily achieve an 80% or higher grade on either the written test or the
written retest.
2. The student must satisfactorily master 10 out of the 12 performance evaluation tasks.
3. A breach of integrity, conduct unbecoming of a student or the inability to abide by Survival course
guidelines, will result in the immediate dismissal from the Mountain Survival Course.
4. All of the above must be accomplished prior to successful graduation from the Mountain Survival
Course.
5. Failure to accomplish any one these will result in a Proficiency Board, which may result in
dismissal from the course.
6. There will be no talking to any student during isolation unless an emergency. No student will
come with in 50 meters of another student.
P ERFORMANCE TASK M --N/M REMARKS
All criteria listed below each task, must be accomplished in order to master those tasks.
1. SURVIVAL KIT (MSV.2.2) M / NM
Fire starting items
Water procurement items
Food procurement items
Signaling items
First Aid items
Shelter items
2. SURVIVAL NAVIGATION (MSV.2.7) M / NM
Can find cardinal directions
Prepares and maintains a log book
Uses steering marks
Appropriate place
F-1
Appendix F
3. BOW & DRILL (MSV.2.13a) M / NM
Bow
Drill
Socket
Fire Board
Ember Patch
Birds Nest
Kindling
Fuel Wood
4. SURVIVAL SHELTERS (MSV.2.4) M / NM
Protection from the elements
Heat retention
Ventilation
Drying facility
Free from hazards
Shelter stable
5. REQUIREMENTS FOR SURVIVAL (MSV.2.1) M / NM
1st 24Hrs.
Shelter
Fire
Water
Signaling
2nd 24Hrs.
Tools & Weapons
Traps & Snares
Path guards
6. IMPROVISED SIGNAL DEVICE (MSVX.2.6) M / NM
Smoke Generator
Appropriate Size
Tinder
Kindling
Placement
Aflame within 90 seconds
International Symbol
Shadows
Size
Placement
Contrast
F-2
Appendix F
7. TOOLS & WEAPONS (MSV.2.11) M / NM
Bowl
Wood split
Bark stripped
Coal burned
4inch deep, 4 inch diameter
Does not leak
Simple Club
Hardwood used
Bark stripped
Fire hardened (if required)
Club functional
Rounded ends
8. TOOL OR WEAPON (MSV.2.11) M / NM
Hardwood used
Bark stripped
Fire hardened (if required)
Functional able
One of the three following will be made: Ice spud, Ice skimmer, Slingshot
9. FISH & GAME (MSV.2.10) M / NM
Dress and/or skin game
Prepared game for consumption
Consumed game
Hide fleshed, brained, and smoked
Hide sewn and suitable for intended uses
10. TRAPS & SNARES (MSV.2.9) M / NM
Employment tech. appropriate for intended animal
a. Location
b. Presentation
c. Construction
Loop size and ground clearance correct
Bait used
Split stick if required
11. EXPIDIENT SNOWSHOE (WSVX) M / NM
Properly constructed
Properly attached
Execute movement tech.
Binding does not fail (3times)
Snowshoe does not break
F-3
Appendix F
12. PATHGUARD (MSV.2.9) M / NM
Likely avenue of approach
Produces noise
Concealed
Appropriate tactical distance from the shelter
F-4
Appendix F
F-5
Appendix F
F-6
Appendix F

MILITARY SURVIVAL MANUAL:VOL 9

UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS
Mountain Warfare Training Center
Bridgeport, California 93517-5001
WSVX.02.15
2/6/05
STUDENT HANDOUT
MOUNTAIN WEATHER
TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE In a cold weather mountainous environment, conduct
weather forecasting, in accordance with the reference. (WSVX.02.15)
ENABLING LEARNING OBJECTIVES
(1) Without the aid of references, describe in writing each type of cloud, in accordance
with the references. (WSVX.02.15a)
(2) Without the aid of references, state in writing the cloud progression for both a cold
and warm front, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.15b)
(3) Without the aid of references, state in writing five signs of nature, in accordance with
the references. (WSVX.02.15c)
OUTLINE
1 . G ENERAL
A. The earth is surrounded by the atmosphere, which is divided into several layers. The
world’s weather systems are in the troposphere, the lower of these layers. This layer
reaches as high as 40,000 feet.
B. Dust and clouds in the atmosphere absorb or bounce back much of the energy that the sun
beams down upon the earth. Less than one half of the sun’s energy actually warms the
earth’s surface and lower atmosphere.
C. Warmed air, combined with the spinning (rotation) of the earth, produces winds that
spread heat and moisture more evenly around the world. This is very important because
the sun heats the Equator much more than the poles and without winds to help restore the
balance, much of the earth would be impossible to live on. When the air-cools; clouds,
rain, snow, hail, fog and frost may develop.
15-1
D. The weather that you find in any place depends on many things, i.e. how hot the air is,
how moist the air is, how it is being moved by the wind, and especially, is it being lifted
or not?
2 . P RESSURE
A. All of these factors are related to air pressure, which is the weight of the atmosphere at
any given place. The lower the pressure, the more likely are rain and strong winds.
B. In order to understand this we can say that the air in our atmosphere acts very much like a
liquid.
C. Areas with a high level of this liquid would exert more pressure on the Earth and be
called a “high pressure area”.
D. Areas with a lower level would be called a “low pressure area”.
E. In order to equalize the areas of high pressure it would have to push out to the areas of
low pressure.
F. The characteristics of these two pressure areas are as follows:
(1) H igh-pressure area. Flows out to equalize pressure.
(2) L ow-pressure area. Flows in to equalize pressure.
G. The air from the high-pressure area is basically just trying to gradually flow out to
equalize its pressure with the surrounding air; while the low pressure is beginning to
build vertically. Once the low has achieved equal pressure, it can’t stop and continues to
build vertically; causing turbulence, which results in bad weather.
NOTE: When looking on the weather map, you will notice that these resemble
contour lines. They are called “isobars” and are translated to mean, “equal
pressure area”.
H. I sobars. Pressure is measured in millibars or another more common measurement -
“inches mercury”.
I. Fitting enough, areas of high pressure are called “ridges” and areas of low pressure are
called “troughs”.
NOTE: The average air pressure at sea level is:
29.92 inches mercury.
1,013 millibars.
J. As we go up in elevation, the pressure (or weight) of the atmosphere decreases.
2
EXAMPLE: At 18,000 feet in elevation it would be 500 millibars vice 1,013
millibars at sea level.
3. H UMIDITY. Humidity is the amount of moisture in the air. All air holds water vapor,
although it is quite invisible.
A. Air can hold only so much water vapor, but the warmer the air, the more moisture it can
hold. When the air has all the water vapor that it can hold, the air is said to be saturated
(100% relative humidity).
B. If the air is then cooled, any excess water vapor condenses; that is, it’s molecules join to
build the water droplets we can see.
C. The temperature at which this happens is called the “condensation point”. The
condensation point varies depending on the amount of water vapor and the temperature
of the air.
D. If the air contains a great deal of water vapor, condensation will form at a temperature of
20OC (68OF). But if the air is rather dry and does not hold much moisture, condensation
may not form until the temperature drops to 0OC (32OF) or even below freezing.
E. A diabatic Lapse Rate. The adiabatic lapse rate is the rate that air will cool on ascent and
warm on descent. The rate also varies depending on the moisture content of the air.
(1) Saturated Air = 2.2OF per 1,000 feet.
(2) Dry Air = 5.5OF per 1,000 feet.
15-3
4. W INDS. As we stated earlier, the uneven heating of the air by the sun and rotation of the
earth causes winds. Much of the world’s weather depends on a system of winds that blow in
a set direction. This pattern depends on the different amounts of sun (heat) that the different
regions get and also on the rotation of the earth.
A. Above hot surfaces rising air creates a void. Cool air moves into and settles into the void.
The cool air is either warmed up and begins to rise or it settles. This is dependent upon
the sun’s thermal energy. The atmosphere is always trying to equalize between high
pressure and low pressure. On a large scale, this forms a circulation of air from the poles
along the surface or the earth to the equator, where it rises and moves towards the poles
again.
B. Once the rotation of the earth is added to this, the pattern of the circulation becomes
confusing.
C. Because of the heating and cooling, along with the rotation of the earth, we have these
surfaces winds. All winds are named from the direction they originated from:
(1) P olar Easterlies. These are winds from the polar region moving from the east. This
is air that has cooled and settled at the poles.
(2) P revailing Westerlies. These winds originate from approximately 30 degrees North
Latitude from the west. This is an area where prematurely cooled air, due to the
earth’s rotation, has settled back to the surface.
(3) N ortheast Tradewinds. These are winds that originate from approximately 30 degrees
North from the Northeast. Also prematurely cooled air.
D. J et Stream. A jet stream can be defined as a long, meandering current of high speed
winds near the tropopause (transition zone between the troposphere and the stratosphere)
blowing from generally a westerly direction and often exceeding 250 miles per hour. The
jet stream results from:
(1) Circulation of air around the poles and Equator.
(2) The direction of air flow above the mid latitudes.
(3) The actual path of the jet stream comes from the west, dipping down and picking up
air masses from the tropical regions and going north and bringing down air masses
from the polar regions.
NOTE: The average number of long waves in the jet stream is between three and five depending
on the season. Temperature differences between polar and tropical regions influence this. The
long waves influence day to week changes in the weather; there are also short waves that
influence hourly changes in the weather.
E. Here are some other types of winds that are peculiar to mountain environments but don’t
necessarily affect the weather:
4
(1) A nabatic wind. These are winds that blow up mountain valleys to replace warm
rising air and are usually light winds.
(2) K atabatic wind. These are winds that blow down mountain valley slopes caused by
the cooling of air and are occasionally strong winds.
5. A IR MASSES. As we know, all of these patterns move air. This air comes in parcels
known as “air masses”. These air masses can vary in size from as small as a town to as large
as a country. These air masses are named for where they originate:
A. Maritime. Over water.
B. Continental. Over land.
C. Polar. Above 60 degrees North.
D. Tropical. Below 60 degrees North.
E. Combining these give us the names and description of the four types of air masses:
(1) Continental Polar. Cold, dry air mass.
15-5
(2) Maritime Polar. Cold, wet air mass.
(3) Continental Tropical. Dry, warm air mass.
(4) Maritime Tropical. Wet, warm air mass.
F. The thing to understand about air masses, they will not mix with another air mass of a
different temperature and moisture content. When two different air masses collide, we
have a front which will be covered in more detail later in this period of instruction.
6. L IFTING/COOLING. As we know, air can only hold so much moisture depending on it’s
temperature. If we cool this air beyond its saturation point, it must release this moisture in
one form or another, i.e. rain, snow, fog, dew, etc. There are three ways that air can be lifted
and cooled beyond its saturation point.
A. O rographic uplift. This happens when an air mass is pushed up and over a mass of higher
ground such as a mountain. Due to the adiabatic lapse rate, the air is cooled with altitude
and if it reaches its saturation point we will receive precipitation.
OROGRAPHIC UPLIFT
B. C onvention effects. This is normally a summer effect due to the sun’s heat radiating off
of the surface and causing the air currents to push straight up and lift air to a point of
saturation.
6
CONVECTION EFFECTS
C. F rontal lifting. As we know when two air masses of different moisture and temperature
content collide, we have a front. Since the air masses will not mix, the warmer air is
forced aloft, from there it is cooled and then reaches its saturation point. Frontal lifting is
where we receive the majority of our precipitation. A combination of the different types
of lifting is not uncommon.
7. C LOUDS. (WSVX.02.15a) Anytime air is lifted or cooled beyond its saturation point
(100% relative humidity), clouds are formed. Clouds are one of our sign posts to what is
happening. Clouds can be described in many different ways, they can also be classified by
height or appearance, or even by the amount of area covered, vertically or horizontally.
A. C irrus. These clouds are formed of ice crystals at very high altitudes (usually 20,000 to
35,000 feet) in the mid-latitudes and are thin, feathery type clouds. These clouds can give
you up to 24 hours warning of approaching bad weather, hundreds of miles in advance of
a warm front. Frail, scattered types, such as “mare-tails” or dense cirrus layers, tufts are a
sign of fair weather but predictive may be a prelude to approaching lower clouds, the
arrival of precipitation and the front.
B. C umulus. These clouds are formed due to rising air currents and are prevalent in unstable
air that favors vertical development. These currents of air create cumiliform clouds that
give them a piled or bunched up appearance, looking similar to cotton balls. Within the
cumulus family there are three different types to help us to forecast the weather:
(1) Cotton puffs of cumulus are Fair Weather Clouds but should be observed for
possible growth into towering cumulus and cumulonimbus.
(2) Towering cumulus are characterized by vertical development. Their vertical
lifting is caused by some type of lifting action, such as convective currents
found on hot summer afternoons or when wind is forced to rise up the slope of
a mountain or possibly the lifting action that may be present in a frontal
system. The towering cumulus has a puffy and “cauliflower-shaped”
appearance.
15-7
(3) Cumulonimbus clouds are characterized in the same manner as the towering
cumulus, form the familiar “thunderhead” and produce thunderstorm activity.
These clouds are characterized by violent updrafts which carry the tops of the
clouds to extreme elevations. Tornadoes, hail and severe rainstorms are all
products of this type of cloud. At the top of the cloud, a flat anvil shaped
form appears as the thunderstorm begins to dissipate.
C. S tratus. Stratus clouds are formed when a layer of moist air is cooled below its saturation
point. Stratiform, clouds lie mostly in horizontal layers or sheets, resisting vertical
development. The word stratus is derived from the Latin word “layer”. The stratus cloud
is quite uniform and resembles fog. It has a fairly uniform base and a dull, gray
appearance. Stratus clouds make the sky appear heavy and will occasionally produce fine
drizzle or very light snow with fog. However, because there is little or no vertical
movement in the stratus clouds, they usually do not produce precipitation in the form of
heavy rain or snow.
8. F RONTS. (WSVX.02.15b) As we know, fronts often happen when two air masses of
different moisture and temperature content interact. One of the ways we can identify that this
is happening is by the progression of the clouds.
A. W arm Front. A warm front occurs when warm air moves into and over a slower (or
stationary) cold air mass. Since warm air is less dense, it will rise naturally so that it will
push the cooler air down and rise above it. The cloud you will see at this stage is cirrus.
From the point where it actually starts rising, you will see stratus. As it continues to rise,
this warm air cools by the cold air and, this, receiving moisture at the same time. As it
builds in moisture, it darkens becoming “nimbus-stratus”, which means rain of
thunderclouds. At that point some type of moisture will generally fall.
B. C old Front. A cold front occurs when a cold air mass (colder than the ground that it is
traveling over) overtakes a warm air mass that is stationary or moving slowly. This cold
air, being denser, will go underneath the warm air, pushing it higher. Of course, no one
can see this, but they can see clouds and the clouds themselves can tell us what is
8
happening. The cloud progression to look for is cirrus to cirrocumulus to cumulus and,
finally, to cumulonimbus.
C. O ccluded Front. Cold fronts move faster than warm ones so that eventually a cold front
overtakes a warm one and the warm air becomes progressively lifted from the surface.
The zone of division between cold air ahead and cold air behind is called a “cold
occlusion”. If the air behind the front is warmer than ahead, it is a warm occlusion. Most
land areas experience more
occlusions than other types of fronts. In the progression of clouds leading to fronts,
orographic uplift can play part in deceiving you of the actual type of front, i.e. progression
of clouds leading to a warm front with orographic cumulus clouds added to these. The
progression of clouds in an occlusion is a combination of both progressions from a warm
and cold front.
9. USING SIGNS FROM NATURE. (WSVX.02.15c) These signs will give you a general
prediction of the incoming weather conditions. Try to utilize as many signs together as
possible, which will improve your prediction. All of these signs have been tested with
relative accuracy, but shouldn’t be depended on 100%. But in any case you will be right
more times than wrong in predicting the weather. From this we can gather as much
information as needed and compile it along with our own experience of the area we are
working in to help us form a prediction of incoming weather. The signs are as follows:
15-9
A. Contrail Lines. A basic way of identifying a low-pressure area is to note the contrail lines
from jet aircraft. If they don’t dissipate within two hours, that indicates a low pressure
area in your area. This usually occurs about 24 hours prior to an oncoming front.
B. Lenticulars. These are optical, lens-shaped cumulus clouds that have been sculpted by
the winds. This indicates moisture in the air and high winds aloft. When preceding a
cold front, winds and clouds will begin to lower.
C. An altimeter and map or a barometer can be utilized to forecast weather in the field.
However, the user must have operational knowledge of the gear.
D. A spider’s habits are very good indicators of what weather conditions will be within the
next few hours. When the day is to be fair and relatively windless, they will spin long
filaments over which they scout persistently. When precipitation is imminent, they
shorten and tighten their snares and drowse dully in their centers.
E. Insects are especially annoying two to four hours before a storm.
F. If bees are swarming, fair weather will continue for at least the next half day.
G. Large game such as deer, elk, etc., will be feeding unusually heavy four to six hours
before a storm.
H. When the smoke from a campfire, after lifting a short distance with the heated air, beats
downward, a storm is approaching. Steadily rising smoke indicates fair weather.
I. A gray, overcast evening sky indicates that moisture carrying dust particles in the
atmosphere have become overloaded with water; this condition favors rain.
J. A gray morning sky indicates dry air above the haze caused by the collecting of moisture
on the dust in the lower atmosphere; you can reasonably expect a fair day.
K. When the setting sun shows a green tint at the top as it sinks behind clear horizon, fair
weather is probable for most of the next 24 hours.
L. A rainbow in the late afternoon indicates fair weather ahead. However, a rainbow in the
morning is a sign of prolonged bad weather.
M. A corona is the circle that appears around the sun or the moon. When this circle grows
larger and larger, it indicates that the drops of water in the atmosphere are evaporating
and that the weather will probably be clear. When this circle shrinks by the hour, it
indicates that the water drops in the atmosphere are becoming larger, forming into clouds,
rain is almost sure to fall.
N. In the northern hemisphere winds form the south usually indicate a low-pressure system.
These systems are frequently associated with rainstorms. “Winds from the south bring s
rain in it’s mouth.”
10
O. It is so quiet before a storm, that distant noises can be heard more clearly. This is due to
the inactivity of wildlife a couple of hours before a storm.
P. Natural springs tend to flow at a higher rate when a storm is approaching. This is due to
lower barometric pressure. This will cause ponds, with a lot of vegetative decay at the
bottom, to become momentarily polluted.
Q. A heavy dew or frost in the morning is a sign of fair weather for the rest of the day. This
is due to the moisture in the atmosphere settling on the ground vice in the form of
precipitation and up to 12 hours of continued good weather can be expected.
15-11
UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS
Mountain Warfare Training Center
Bridgeport, California 93517-5001
WSVX.02.16
2/6/05
STUDENT HANDOUT
INTRODUCTION TO EVASION
TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE In a cold weather mountainous environment,
demonstrate basic evasion techniques, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.2.16)
ENABLING LEARNING OBJECTIVES
(1) Without the aid of reference, list in writing the planning and preparation
considerations for evasion, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.2.16a)
(2) Without the aid of reference, describe in writing the definition of a Selected Area For
Evasion (SAFE), in accordance with the references. (WSVX.2.16b)
(3) Without the aid of reference, list in writing the steps taken during the occupation of a
SAFE, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.2.16c)
OUTLINE
1. PREPARING FOR A POTENTIAL EVASION SITUATION. The Code of Conduct
provides guiding principles to Marines involved in any military operation whether
peacekeeping, combat, or survival. An operation that deteriorates so severely that a Marine
unit is forced to employ survival skills may require that unit to “evade” hostile enemy units.
JP 3-50.3 defines evasion as the process whereby individuals who are isolated in hostile or
unfriendly territory avoid capture with the goal of successfully returning to areas under
friendly control. Should a survival situation require evading the enemy, success will depend
on prior planning.
a. P lanning and Preparation. (MSVX.12.16a) The responsibility for proper preparation
and planning for evasion ultimately rests with the individuals concerned. All Marines
who are tasked to execute any mission should receive the following:
(1) I ntelligence Briefings. Information on the mission route, enemy troop
dispositions, impact of enemy operations on friendly or multinational military
forces, status of the US or multinational military situation, or changing
attitudes of the enemy populace.
(2) E vasion Plan of Action (EPA). The EPA is one of the critical documents for
successful recovery planning. It is the vehicle by which potential evaders, prior
to their isolation in hostile territory, relay their after-isolation intentions to the
recovery forces. See Appendix D, “Evasion Plan of Action Format,” for
details on the content of an EPA.
16-1
MSVX.2.16
(3) Selected Areas for Ev asion (SAFE) Area Intelligence Descriptions.
(WSVX.02.16b) A SAFE is a “designated area in hostile territory that offers
isolated personnel a reasonable chance of avoiding capture and of surviving
until they can be recovered.”
(a) They are designated by the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) and are
classified.
(b) Designed to facilitate extended evasion, which must meet certain
requirements for approval.
(4) E &R (Evasion and Recovery) Area Studies. E&R areas may be selected in any
geographic region based on operational or contingency planning requirements.
Although similar to SAFE areas in most respects, they differ in that not all
conventional selection criteria for SAFE areas can be met because of current
political, military, or environmental factors prevailing in the country.
(5) S urvival, Evasion, Resistance, and Escape Guides and Bulletins. They contain
the basic information to help an individual survive, successfully evade and, if
captured, resist enemy exploitation. These bulletins cover information on
topography and hydrography, food and water sources, safe and dangerous
plants and animals, customs and cultures.
(6) I solated Personnel Report (ISOPREP). When filled in, the DD Form 1833 is
classified CONFIDENTIAL. It enables a recovery force to authenticate
evaders.
2. E XECUTING AN EVASION PLAN OF ACTION (EPA). Unforeseen circumstances may
require Marines to execute their EPA.
a. I nitial Planning. Immediately upon breaking contact, attempt to gain maximum
distance between yourself and the enemy.
(1) Carefully consider METT-T during all planning and execution.
(2) Determine unit’s combat effectiveness.
(3) Develop a course of action.
b. M ovement techniques. If possible, the entire movement to friendly or neutral areas, as
well as to designated SAFE areas or E&R areas should be completed without being
observed. Furthermore, an appreciation of the methods by which a hostile force may
attempt to detect you will assist in techniques to maximize your concealment.
(1) M ethods to avoid enemy detection.
16-2
MSVX.2.16
(a) Apply standard patrolling movement techniques.
(b) Avoid natural lines of drift and Main Supply Routes (MSR).
(c) Avoid all rural areas, small towns, and farms.
-Dogs and domestic poultry are very common and will provide a
“first alert” needed to initiate a hostile search.
(2) M ethods of detecting the evader.
(a) Direct Observation.
(b) Detection Equipment.
-Thermal imaging
-Active Infrared (IR), such as NVGs
-Acoustic detectors/sensors
-Direction finding equipment for radios
(c) Search teams.
-Military and/or civilian
-Trackers
(d) Dogs.
-Attack or tracking dogs
-Difficult to determine if being tracked by dogs
-Attempt to discourage the dog from doing its job
c. O ccupation of a SAFE or E&R. (WSVX.02.16c) Prior to movement to, and
occupation of a SAFE or E&R area, consider the following:
(1) Conduct a reconnaissance of the entire area for enemy threat. This may me a
physical or visual reconnaissance.
(2) Select an occupation site which affords:
(a) Concealed escape routes if detected by enemy.
(b) Close proximity to a potential extraction site.
(c) Observation of the area and avenues of approach.
(3) Apply the requirements for survival.
(4) Execute the communication and signaling plan as ordered.
16-3
MSVX.2.16
REFERENCE.
1. JP 3-50.3, Joint Doctrine for Evasion and Recovery, 1996.
16-4
MSVX.2.16
UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS
Mountain Warfare Training Center
Bridgeport, California 93517-5001
WSVX.01.01
2/6/05
STUDENT HANDOUT
AVALANCHE AND ICE HAZARDS
LESSON PURPOSE. The purpose of this period of instruction is to introduce the student to
avalanche and ice hazards, their characteristics, dangers, and how to protect yourself from them.
OUTLINE
1. T YPES OF AVALANCHE: There are four types of avalanches: Loose-snow, Slab, cornice
collapse and Ice.
a. L oose-snow Avalanches. Sometimes called point release slides, they start when a
small amount of cohesion less snow breaks away and starts to descend down the
slope. At a distance it will appear to look like they start from a point and fan out as
they descend. They will start out small and usually involve only the top layers. This
avalanche is capable of being quite large and destructive depending on the amount of
material it will entrain during its descent.
(1) The stress this avalanche creates during its descent may be enough to trigger
larger and deeper slab releases
(2) It occurs more often on steep slope angles of 35 degrees or higher.
(3) It will range in speeds up to 200 mph.
b. S lab Avalanches. These avalanches occur when one or more layers of cohesive snow
break away from a sloped snowfield at the crown surface. As the slabs travel down
slope, they break up into smaller blocks or clods.
(1) Slab avalanches begin when the force of gravity pulling a layer or layers of snow
downhill exceeds the strength of the weakest layer in the snow pack.
(2) Slabs vary in size from just a few inches to many feet thick, and range in width
from a few yards to over a mile. Slab material is also highly variable; slabs may be
hard or soft, wet or dry.
(3) Will range in speeds up to 150 mph.
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WSVX.01.01
(4) Features of a slab avalanche.
(a) Crown Face / Fracture Line. This is the upper boundary of the slab.
(b) Crown. This area is immediately above the crown face/fracture
line.
(c) Flanks. This is the outer boundaries of the slab.
(d) Stauchwall. This is the bottom boundary of the slab.
(e) Bed Surface. The sliding surface for the avalanche.
(5) Slope angle. Slab avalanches originate on a wide variety of terrain. The main
requirement is slope angle. Most slabs fracture on slope angles between 35-40
degrees.
(a) Slopes less than 30 degrees are less likely to have slab avalanches
because there isn’t enough tension of on the slab area.
(b) Slopes greater than 45 degrees usually sluff before slabs can form.
c. C ornice Collapses. An overhang of snow forms when windblown snow builds out
horizontally at sharp terrain-breaks such as ridge crests and the sides of gullies. They
can break off well back from the edge, and often trigger bigger slides when they hit
the wind-blown pillowed area of the slope.
d. I ce Avalanches. These are caused by the collapse of unstable ice blocks (seracs) from
steep or overhanging parts of a glacier. Ice avalanches can entrain a large amount of
rock, ice, and snow and travel long distances. These avalanches are not predictable
and cannot be detected.
2. AVALANCHE TRIGGERS. There are two types: natural and artificial.
a. N atural Triggers. These are not triggered directly by man or his equipment. A falling
cornice, sluffing snow, stress change due to metamorphism, avalanche, etc., can all
trigger avalanches.
b. A rtificial Triggers. Man or his equipment triggers these. A ski pass, a mountaineer's
weight, an explosive blast, a sonic boom, etc., commonly set off avalanches.
3. PARTS OF AN AVALANCHE
a. S tarting zone. It is usually steeper than 30 degrees and receives large amounts of
snow. This is where the unstable snow breaks loose and starts to slide.
b. A valanche Track. Refers to the path under the starting zone and above the run out
zone. They can be channeled or unchanneled. The track is the slope or channel down
which snow moves.
(1) Channeled tracks are confined areas such as gullies and couloirs. Unconfined
tracks are on open slopes. Some may have trees present.
(2) An avalanche track may have several branches or several small tracks having
separate starting zones that may feed into one big track. It is important to
remember that multi-branch tracks may run several times in quick succession.
A number of rescuers have been killed when working a run out zone and a
second avalanche ran down within hours of the first avalanche.
(3) Wet snow avalanches tend to follow the track boundary, whereas dry snow
avalanches can easily jump terrain barriers.
c. R un out zones. This is the area at the bottom of the path where debris piles-up.
Variation in weather patterns from one year to the next will influence the position of
the run out zone. This is where the snow and debris slows down and comes to rest
4. AVALANCHE HAZARD EVALUATION PROCESS. The evaluation process is the
interaction of four critical variables, which helps determine whether or not, an avalanche is
possible. They are snow pack, weather, terrain, and the human factor.
a. T he Snow Pack. Is the snow capable of sliding? As each storm passes, a new layer of
snow is added, some by the wind some not, and every layer of snow has it’s own
texture and strength. Some layers will be strong while some will be weak. Some will
bond well, and some won’t. Although the study of snow metamorphism is a science,
Marines must determine if a weak bond in the snow pack exists. Additionally, one
must attempt to estimate the amount of snow that could be potentially released, if
triggered.
b. T he Weather. Is the weather contributing to instability? It is an observed fact that all
natural avalanches occur during or shortly after a storm. Why? The snow pack can’t
handle the new weight being added. This new weight alters the balance in strength
and stress. The three main contributing factors are the precipitation, wind, and
temperature.
(1) Signs of Instability.
(a) Recent avalanche activity on similar slopes and small avalanches
underfoot.
(b) Booming. The audible collapse of snow layers.
(c) Visible cracks shooting out from underfoot.
(d) Sluffing debris, which is evidence of avalanche activity occurring.
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WSVX.01.01
(e) Sunballing, which is caused by rapid warming of the snow surface.
(f) Weather patterns.
1. Heavy amount of snow loading in a short period of time. (1
in/hr for 24 hr period).
2. Heavy rains which warms and weakens the snow pack.
3. Significant wind loading causing leeward slopes to possibly
become overloaded.
4. Long, cold, clear, calm period followed by heavy precipitation
or wind loading.
5. Rapid temperature rises to above freezing after long a cold
period.
6. Prolonged periods (e.g. more than 24 hrs) of above-freezing
temperatures.
7. Cold snow temperatures (equal to or less than 25F) slow down
the settlement or strengthening process, thus allowing unstable
snow conditions to persist longer.
(2) Signs of Stability.
(a) Snow cones or settlement cones form around trees and other obstacles
and indicate the snow around the object is settling.
(b) Creep and Glide. Creep is the internal deformation of the snow pack.
Glide is slippage of the snow layer with respect to the ground.
Evidence of these two properties on the snow pack is a ripple effect at
the bottom of a slope. It is an indication that the snow is gaining
equilibrium and strength through this type of settlement process.
(c) Absence of wind during storms which is indicated by snow
accumulation in the trees.
(d) Snow temperatures remaining between 25 & 32F ordinarily settles
snow rapidly, creating a denser and stronger snow pack.
c. T he Terrain. Being able to recognize avalanche terrain is a critical step in the
evaluation process. Assuming that avalanches occur on only big slopes is a very
common mistake. Avalanches can occur on any slope.
(1) S lope Angle. Slope angle should always be factored when planning
movements in snow covered mountainous terrain.
(a) As the slope angle increases, so does the stress on the boundary
regions of a slab.
(b) Most slab avalanches release on slopes with angles between 35-40
degrees.
(c) Loose snow avalanches occur on high angle slopes 60 degrees and
above.
(2) Slope Orientation.
(a) Leeward, wind-loaded slopes tend to increase the stress on the snow
pack.
(b) Snow packs moderately hit by the sun can strengthen and stabilize the
snow pack.
(c) Direct sunlight has the opposite effect by weakening and lubricating
the bonds between grains.
(d) Weak layers are often well developed or persist on shaded slopes due
to the colder conditions and absence of solar warming during the
winter. Suspect instability on these slopes.
(3) Terrain Roughness (Anchoring). Slopes with anchors are less likely to
avalanche than open slopes.
(4) V egetation. The most convincing evidence of past avalanche activity is a path
of fallen trees, aligned in the same direction and sheared at the height above
the ground.
(a) Trees void of branches on the uphill side, which are called “flagged”
trees.
(b) Cleared strips of trees in a dense forest.
(5) S easonal. Once an avalanche path has begun to slide in a season, other
avalanches may occur a long the same path.
(6) E levation. Temperature, wind and precipitation often vary significantly with
elevation. Common differences include rain at lower elevations or differences
in precipitation amounts, or wind speed with elevation. Never assume that
conditions on a slope at a particular elevation reflect those of a slope at a
different elevation.
(7) L ocal Population. A good source of information but beware of short-term
observations, i.e., 10 years.
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WSVX.01.01
d. The Human Factor. What are your alternatives and their possible consequences?
e. Hazard Evaluation. This should be an on going process, and should start before the
mission even begins.
(1) B efore. Gather information on the weather such as new snowfall, high winds,
snow advisories, and topography of the terrain. Find out any past history of the
area and recent or past avalanche activity.
(2) D uring. During your movement, try and fine-tune any information that may
help in your decision-making process and support the fact that there may be an
avalanche hazard.
(3) B e Objective. We don’t have options when assigned missions. You have to
look at the overall mission with the present avalanche hazard to determine
whether you should continue on or choose an alternate route.
5. ROUTE CONSIDERATIONS.
a. Determine starting zones of probable avalanche prone slopes and cross as high as
possible, preferably above natural anchors.
b. Travel on high points and ridges, especially windward sides.
c. When ascending or descending an avalanche prone slope, stay to the side of the start
zone and track.
d. Avoid wind-loaded, lee slopes.
e. Favor terrain with anchors, i.e. tree-covered areas over open slopes.
f. Pick areas with flat, open run-outs so that debris burial depth is decreased. Avoid
areas that feed into crevasses and cliffs.
g. You can generally find a safe route somewhere in a wide U-shaped valley, but narrow
V-shaped ones should be avoided. In V-shaped valleys, avalanches could run from
either side and continue up the opposite side, so there may be little or no safe ground.
6. CROSSING AVALANCHE PRONE SLOPES. Certain requirements may make it
necessary to cross a suspected slope. This should be done only AFTER all alternatives have been
exhausted.
a. Individual Preparation.
(1) Loosen ski bindings; remove hands from ski pole straps.
(2) Leave your pack on and secure the pack straps.
(3) Secure ECWCS hood tightly covering face, trail an avalanche cord if
available.
(4) Go straight downhill on foot rather than ski and look for possible escape
routes.
(5) Go straight down, do not traverse.
(6) If possible cross as high as possible on concave slopes.
(7) Cross one at a time and if one crosses safely, it does not mean that it is safe
passage for the rest. If possible, belay everyone across.
b. Actions if Caught.
(1) Attempt to remove skis or snowshoes.
(2) Assess best line of escape.
(3) Delay your departure, i.e., let as much of the avalanche pass you as possible.
(4) Try and work to the side. There will be less force of the avalanche at the edge
of the flow.
(5) Try to swim out using a double action backstroke or try to roll away at a 45-
degree angle.
(6) A supreme effort should be made to get to the surface as the avalanche settles.
(7) Make an air space to breath.
(8) Move to position near the surface if possible.
(9) Establish orientation.
(10) Don’t panic.
c. Avalanche Rescue. Statistically, after about 1/2 hour of burial, the chance of survival is
approximately 50%. After an hour the chances of survival drop to 20%. Speed is
therefore essential for recovering a live victim. Cold and suffocation is the main
causes of death.
(1) Make a careful note of where he was last seen and mark the spot. Also mark
any position where he reappeared during his movement.
(2) Make a quick visual search of the area, looking for any sign (i.e., avalanche
cord, body parts, or equipment).
(3) If nothing is apparent at first then make a quick surface search.
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WSVX.01.01
(4) If nothing is found, a more systematic search should be made from the bottom
working up.
(5) If you again fail to find anything, your next step is to probe.
(6) Most Likely Spots to Find an Avalanche Victim.
(a) Start at the last seen location and work down the slope. Look for clues
of the victim such as skis, clothing, avalanche cord, etc.
(b) At the outsides of bends of the avalanche path where debris
accumulates.
(c) Look on the uphill side of obstacles, such as trees and boulders, where
debris builds up.
(d) In the run out zone, debris may be very large and hard to search.
(7) Types of Searches. This will depend on manpower available and time.
(a) H asty search. By far the most important search for backcountry travel.
Speed is essential and the determination whether or not to go for help
is a difficult one.
(b) C oarse probe. The idea behind this type of probe is to sacrifice some
thoroughness for speed.
(c) F ine probe. Takes 4-5 times longer than the coarse probe. Chances
are, the victim will not be recovered alive.
7. ICE HAZARDS. Frozen waterways (lakes, streams, and bays) can be life threatening
obstacles when crossing. Ice is classified in three general types: salt water, fresh water, and
land.
a. F resh Water Ice. Fresh water ice begins to form on lakes and rivers under normal
conditions, from 3-5 weeks after the daily temperature drops below 32F.
b. L ake Ice is generally weak in the areas of streams, inlets, springs, or outlets.
Decaying vegetation on the bottom of a lake may give off air bubbles, which slow ice
formation and create weak ice.
c. R iver Ice formed by warm weather and wind may create a rough surface, which will
remain ruff throughout the winter. This ice is filled with air bubbles.
d. Normally, fresh water does not freeze to a thickness greater than 8 feet in a single
season. In lakes, the normal ice depth by late March is between 3 1/2 feet and 6 feet,
depending on winter temperatures.
(1) The following conditions will speed up freezing:
(a) Low stable temperatures.
(b) High wind-chill factor.
(c) No snow cover.
(d) No current.
(2) The following conditions will retard freezing:
(a) Fluctuating temperature.
(b) Fast current.
(c) Snow cover.
(d) Salt water and other impurities.
NOTE: The strength of ice depends upon ice structure, purity of water, freezing process, cycles
of freezing and thawing, crystal orientation, temperature, ice thickness, snow cover, water
current, underside support, and age.
e. S pecial Considerations.
(1) Immediately adjacent to the shore, the ice formation is thin and weak and
more likely to develop cracks than ice in the center of a frozen stream.
Depending upon the gradient of the riverbed and the thickness of the ice near
the shore, it is generally safer to maintain a route near the shore if the ice rests
upon the river bottom.
(2) Where an under-ice current of water flows under a large ice area, the ice in
contact with the current is subject to a greater variation in temperature over a
given time, and therefore thicker than the ice in adjacent areas.
(3) Shallow water ice is usually thinner than deep water ice.
(4) Good quality ice is clear and free from bubbles and cracks. In a body of water
containing clear and cloudy ice. The clear ice will frequently be thinner then
the cloudy ice.
(5) Lakes containing a great deal of vegetation whose decomposition retards
freezing, results in weak ice.
(6) Flooded snow when frozen produces "slush ice" which is white and may
contain air bubbles. Slush ice has a load carrying capacity approximately 1/4
less than that of prime natural ice.
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(7) Ice that remains unsupported after a drop in the water beneath it has little
strength. Reservoirs and lakes with runoffs are examples.
8. ICE CROSSING.
a. S afety Precautions. There are six safety precautions to take prior to crossing an icecovered
body of water.
(1) Loosen bindings on skis or snowshoes, if so equipped.
(2) Remove wrist loops of ski poles, if so equipped. If ski poles are not available,
attach a wrist loop to a fixed blade knife (i.e., bayonet) and fasten to the arm.
(3) Clothing should be worn snugly. All ties tied securely (wrist straps, waist
straps, collars, trouser cuffs, etc.) This gives buoyancy if break through
occurs, and reduces cold shock.
(4) Sling pack and weapons onto one shoulder.
(5) Only expose one man to the danger at a time or until weight factor is
determined.
(6) Ropes should belay the first group of individuals, if available.
b. S elf-Rescue Techniques. If an individual or group breaks through the ice, carry out
the following techniques.
(1) Remove unnecessary gear (packs, weapons, snowshoes, etc.) and attempt to
throw them onto the ice.
(2) Use your fixed blade knife or ski pole (if equipped) to drag/push yourself out
of the water.
(3) Do not stand up near the hole. Remain flat and continue to push/drag yourself
away from the hole until clear of the danger.
(4) R EWARM IMMEDIATELY. Cold-water immersion will result in shock
and hypothermia. Strip all wet clothing off and attempt to rewarm body with a
dry sleeping bag or as many fires as possible, surrounding the body.
c. G roup-Rescue Techniques. If personnel are available to assist in the rescue, carry out
the following techniques.
(1) Do not allow Marines to move near the hole without some type of safety (i.e.,
rope, human chain).
(2) If rope is available, tie a large fixed loop on the end. Throw the loop to the
victim and have him place the loop over the body.
(3) If rope is not available, locate a long stick and create a human chain. With all
Marines lying prone, move the chain to as close as possible until the victim
can grasp the stick.
(4) If the victim cannot grasp the stick, continue to edge the chain to the hole until
the end man can reach the victim by hand.
(5) Once the victim has been recovered, REWARM IMMEDIATELY.
REFERENCE:
1. Jill Fredston, Snow Sense, 1994.
2. CRREL Technical Publication, Ice Dynamics MP 1585, 1975.
3. CRREL Technical Publication, Ice Reconnaissance SR 91-30, 1990.
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WSVX.01.01

MILITARY SURVIVAL MANUAL:VOL 8

UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS
Mountain Warfare Training Center
Bridgeport, California 93517-5001
WSVX.02.14
2/6/05
STUDENT HANDOUT
SURVIVAL MEDICINE
TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE In a cold weather mountainous environment, execute
survival medicine techniques, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.14)
ENABLING LEARNING OBJECTIVES
(1) Without the aid of references, list in writing the requirements for maintenance of
health, in accordance with the reference. (WSVX.02.14a)
(2) Without the aid of references, list the in writing the environmental injuries, in
accordance with the reference. (WSVX.02.14b)
(3) Without the aid of references, define in writing the definition of hypothermia, in
accordance with the reference. (WSVX.02.14c)
(4) Without the aid of references, list in writing the general considerations for medevac
procedures, in accordance with the reference. (WSVX.02.14d)
(5) Without the aid of references, execute preventive measures against wildlife diseases,
in accordance with the reference. (WSVX.02.14e)
OUTLINE
1. REQUIREMENTS TO MAINTAIN HEALTH. Maintenance of health is the first step in
preventing injuries. The three requirements are: (WSVX.02.14a)
A. WATER
(1) A person can not survive without water for more than a few days. Your body
loses water through normal body processes (sweating, urinating, and
breathing). During normal activity the kidneys excrete 1 to 2 quarts of water
per day and a person evaporates . 5 to quart per day. Other factors, such as
heat exposure, cold exposure, intense activity, high altitude, burns, or illness,
can cause your body to lose more water. Water intake is critical in preventing
illness.
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B. FOOD
(1) The body can live several weeks without food. However, without an adequate
supply to stay healthy your mental and physical capabilities will deteriorate
rapidly. Food supplies the body with the necessary nutrients and energy to
survive.
(2) Food sources are plants, animals, and fish.
(a) F iber. Fiber prevents irritable bowel syndrome. In the Falklands
campaign the British had a major constipation and diarrhea problem.
This was largely caused by dehydration and a low fiber diet. Grasses
and pine needles are a good source of dietary fiber.
(b) V itamins. Vitamins are essential to metabolic functioning of the body
and cold weather compounds this function. Our bodies cannot make
vitamins so we must provide them in our diet. Most edible plant life
contains many different vitamins. Associated illnesses from long term
deficiency are Scurvy (vitamin C) a physical disease and Beriberi
(vitamin B1) a mental disease. Vitamins can be found in the cambium
layer of trees, pine needles, and stinging nettle.
(c) M inerals. The mineral that we are primarily concerned with is Iron.
Iron deficiency causes a 9% decrease in heat energy production. Iron
acts as a thermo regulator. Consuming only 1/3 RDA of iron results in
a 29% greater heat loss during cold exposure. Animal blood,
dandelions, stinging nettle, and marrow provide the major source of
iron. Ensure these foods are properly prepared.
(d) C alories. To produce energy, the body uses calories. Proteins, fats, or
carbohydrates produce calories. Of these three, certain ones produce
better energy than others do. Animal meat is an excellent source for
caloric intake, although nuts from pinecones can supplement it.
1. P rotein. Proteins are a reparative food of complicated
molecules composed of chains of amino acids. There are
numerous kinds of amino acids which cannot be synthesized by
the body and thus must be consumed in the diet. A pure protein
diet can cause fatalities in 3-8 weeks from Rabbit Starvation, a
term used for living on a relatively fat free rabbit diet. Protein
can be found in dandelions, nuts, and meats.
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2. F at. Fats serve as the main storage form of energy. Fats produce
energy and heat. Fats are best obtained from bone marrow, liver, or the
stomach portion of fish
3. C arbohydrates. Carbohydrates are known as the quick energy food.
They produce lots of heat. They are stored in the liver and muscles.
These organs are not large and can be markedly depleted by fasting for
as short as 24 hours. Cattails, nuts are a source for carbohydrates.
C. PERSONAL HYGIENE
(1) Cleanliness is an important factor in preventing infection and disease. It becomes
even more important in a survival situation.
(2) The areas to pay special attention to are the feet, hands, armpits, crotch, and hair.
Visual and physical inspections should be conducted daily. Hand and finger nails
should be kept as clean as possible to prevent infection of mucous membrane.
(a) Soap (lye) can be made from animal fat and ashes.
(b) Sun bath
(3) Teeth are another important area to keep clean. Brush your teeth each day either with
a toothbrush, or if you don't have one, make a chewing stick.
(a) A chewing stick is made out of a twig about 6 to 8 inches long. Chew one end of
the stick to separate the fibers. Now you can brush your teeth.
2 . F IVE WAYS THE BODY LOSES HEAT
A. R adiation: is direct heat loss from the body to its surroundings. If the surroundings
are colder than the body, the net result is heat loss. A nude man loses about 60%
of his total body heat by radiation. Specifically, heat is lost in the form of infrared
radiation. Infrared targeting devices work by detecting radiant heat loss.
B. C onduction: is the direct transfer of heat from one object in contact with a colder
object.
(1) Most commonly conduction occurs when an individual sits or rests directly
upon a cold object, such as snow, the ground, or a rock. Without an insulating
layer between the Marine and the object (such as an isopor mat), one quickly
begins to lose heat. This is why it's important to not sit or sleep directly on cold
ground or snow without a mat or a pack acting as insulation.
C. C onvection: is heat loss to the atmosphere or a liquid.
Air and water can both be thought of as "liquids" running over the surface of the
body. Water or air, which is in contact with the body, attempts to absorb heat from
the body until the body and air or water is both the same temperatures. However,
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WSVX.02.14
if the air or water is continuously moving over the body, the temperatures can
never equalize and the body keeps losing heat.
D. E vaporation . Heat loss from evaporation occurs when water (sweat) on the
surface of the skin is turned into water vapor. This process requires energy in the
form of heat and this heat comes from the body.
(1) This is the major method the body uses to cool itself down. This is why you
sweat when you work hard or PT. One quart of sweat, which you can easily
produce in an hour of hard PT, will take about 600 calories of heat away from
the body when it evaporates.
E. R espiration. When you inhale, the air you breathe in is warmed by the body and
saturated with water vapor. Then when you exhale, that heat is lost. That is why
breath can be seen in cold air. Respiration is really a combination of convection
(heat being transferred to moving air by the lungs) and evaporation, with both
processes occurring inside the body.
3. P HYSICAL RESPONSES TO HEAT. When the body begins to create excess heat, it
responds in several ways to rid itself of that heat.
A. Initially, the blood vessels in the skin expand, or dilate. This dilation allows more
blood to the surface where the heat can more easily be transferred to the
surroundings.
B. Soon afterwards, sweating begins. This contributes to heat loss through convection
and evaporation.
4. P HYSICAL RESPONSES TO COLD. Almost the opposite occurs as with heat.
A. First, blood vessels at the skin surface close down, or constrict. This does two
things:
(1) Less blood goes near the surface of the body so that less heat is lost to the
outside.
(2) More blood goes to the "core" or the center of the body, to keep the brain,
heart,lungs, liver, and kidneys warm. This means fingers and toes tend to get
cold.
B. If that is not enough to keep the body warm, the next step is shivering. Shivering
is reflexive regular muscular contractions, this muscular activity causes heat
production. As mentioned before, shivering can only last for a short time before
exhaustion occurs. With shivering you will either warm up, as usually occurs, or
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WSVX.02.14
continue to get colder and start to become hypothermic. Hypothermia will be
discussed later.
5. E NVIRONMENTAL INJURIES (WSVX.02.14b) are cold weather injuries,
dehydration, and altitude related illnesses.
A. C OLD WEATHER INJURIES:
1) Hypothermia (MSVX.02.14c) is the state when the body’s core temperature falls
to 95 degrees Fahrenheit or less. It is the number one killer of people in a
survival situation. A common belief that extremely cold temperatures are
needed for hypothermia to occur is not true. Most cases occur when the
temperature is between 30 and 50 degrees Fahrenheit. This is the normal
temperature range at MWTC, except during the harshest of winter.
a) C auses of Hypothermia. The ways in which the body generates and loses
heat has been discussed earlier. Quite simply, hypothermia occurs when
heat loss from the body exceeds the body's ability to produce heat.
Contributing factors include:
 Ambient temperature. Outside air temperature.
 Wind chill. This only affects improperly clothed individuals.
 Wet clothing.
 Cold water immersion.
 Improper clothing.
 Exhaustion.
 Alcohol intoxication, nicotine and drugs such as barbiturates and
tranquilizers.
 Injuries. Those causing immobility or major bleeding, major burn and
head trauma.
b ) S igns and symptoms of Hypothermia
 The number one sign to look for is altered mental status; that is, the
brain is literally getting cold. These signs might include confusion,
slurred speech, strange behavior, irritability, impaired judgment,
hallucinations, or fatigue.
 As hypothermia worsens, victims will lose consciousness and
eventually slip into a coma.
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WSVX.02.14
 Shivering. Remember that shivering is a major way the body tries to
warm itself early on, as it first begins to get cold. Shivering stops for 2
reasons:
 The body has warmed back up to a normal temperature range.
 The body has continued to cool. Below 95F shivering begins to
decrease and by 90F it ceases completely.
 Obviously, continued cooling is bad. So if a Marine with whom you
are working, who was shivering, stops shivering, you must determine
if that is because he has warmed up or continued to cool.
 A victim with severe hypothermia may actually appear to be quite
dead, without breathing or a pulse. However, people who have been
found this way have been successfully "brought back to life" with no
permanent damage. So remember, you are not dead until you are
warm and dead.
c) P revention of Hypothermia
 Obviously, prevention is always better (and much easier) than
treatment.
 Cold weather clothing must be properly warm and cared for.
 Keep your clothing as dry as possible.
 If your feet are cold, wear a hat. Up to 80% of the body's heat can
escape from the head.
 Avoid dehydration. Drink 6 - 8 quarts per day.
 Eat adequately.
 Avoid fatigue and exhaustion.
 Increase levels of activity as the temperature drops. Do not remain
stationary when the temperature is very low. If the tactical situation
does not permit moving about, perform isometric exercises of
successive muscles.
 Use the buddy system to check each other for signs/symptoms of hypothermia.
d) T reatment of Hypothermia.
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WSVX.02.14
 Make the diagnosis.
 Prevent further heat loss.
 Remove the victim from the environment (i.e., into a shelter or snow
cave).
 Insulate the victim.
 Rewarm the victim by:
*Zip two sleeping bags together.
*Pre-warm the bag by a stripped Marine.
*Place the victim in the bag with 2 stripped Marines inside
on both sides of the victim.
 Medevac if possible.
e) Other Points to Remember.
 Fluids. If the victim is mildly hypothermic, he may be given hot wets.
Otherwise give him nothing by mouth.
 Avoid, if possible, excessive movement of the victim, as his heart may
stop beating if it is jarred.
 Major Wounds. Apply first aid to major wounds first, before
attempting to re-warm the victim. Re-warming a victim who has bled
to death does little good.
 Never give alcohol to hypothermia victims.
 Even after you have started re-warming a victim, he must be constantly
monitored. Don't forget about him.
2) F ROSTBITE Frostbite is the actual freezing of tissues. When in a survival
situation, rewarming a severe frostbitten area will not help. It is best to wait for
rescue and medical attention.
a) P revention of Frostbite. Frostbite is an entirely preventable injury.
 Dress in layers. Keep comfortably cool. If you begin to become
uncomfortable, add layers.
 Keep clothes dry. If clothing (especially socks and gloves) become
wet, change them. This may mean you have to change sock 4-5 times a
day.
 Dress properly. If the wind is blowing, wear the correct protective
layer.
 Avoid dehydration. When dehydrated, the amount of blood available to
warm your fingers and toes goes down, increasing the risk of frostbite.
 Avoid Starvation. Remember - Food is Fuel - and the body uses that
fuel to make heat.
 Leadership must ensure that preventive measures are taken.
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WSVX.02.14
b) S igns and Symptoms of Frostbite.
 Ears, nose, fingers and toes are affected first.
 Areas will feel cold and may tingle leading to....
 Numbness which progresses to...
 Waxy appearance with skin stiff and unable to glide freely over a joint.
c) T reatment of Frostbite. Frostbite is classified into three different degrees:
Frosting, Superficial Frostbite, and Deep Frostbite.
 Frosting will revert to normal after using the technique of body
heat rewarming.
 Hold the affected area, skin to skin for 15 minutes.
*Rewarm face, nose, and ears with hands.
*Rewarm hands in armpits, groin or belly.
*Rewarm feet with mountain buddy’s armpits or belly.
 If affected area cannot be rewarmed in 15 minutes, Superficial
Frostbite or Deep Frostbite is suspected.
Do not attempt to further rewarm
Splint the affected area.
Protect the affected area from further injury.
Medevac as soon as possible.
DO NOT RUB ANY COLD INJURY WITH SNOW.
Do not massage the affected area.
Do not rewarm with stove or fire: a burn injury may result.
Loosen constricting clothing.
Avoid tobacco products.
d) T reatment of Superficial or Deep frostbite. Any frostbite injury, regardless of
severity, is treated the same – evacuate the casualty and re-warming in the
rear. Unless the tactical situation prohibits evacuation or you are in a survival
situation, no consideration should be given to re-warming frostbite in the
field. The reason is something-called freeze – thaw – re-freeze injury.
 Freeze – Thaw – Re-freeze injury occurs when a frostbitten extremity
is thawed out, then before it can heal (which takes weeks and maybe
months) it freezes again. This has devastating effects and greatly
worsens the initial injury.
 In an extreme emergency it is better to walk out on a frostbitten foot
than to warm it up and then have it freeze again.
 Treat frozen extremities as fractures - carefully pad and splint.
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WSVX.02.14
 Treat frozen feet as litter cases.
 Prevent further freezing injury.
 Do not forget about hypothermia. Keep the victim warm and dry.
 Once in the rear, a frostbitten extremity is re-warmed in a water bath,
with the temperature strictly maintained at 101F - 108F.
3 ) S NOW BLINDNESS
a. D efinition. Sunburn of the cornea.
b. C auses of Snow Blindness. There are two reasons Marines in a winter
mountainous environment are at increased risk for snow blindness.
 High altitude. Less ultraviolet (UTV) rays are filtered out, UV rays are
what cause snow blindness (as well as sunburn). So at altitude, more
UV rays are available to cause damage.
 Snow. The white color of snow reflects much more LTV rays off of
the ground and back into your face.
c. S igns and Symptoms of Snow Blindness.
 Painful eyes.
 Hot, sticky, or gritty sensation in the eyes, like sand in the eyes.
 Blurred vision.
 Headache may be severe.
 Excessive tearing.
 Eye muscle spasm.
 Bloodshot eyes.
d. P revention of Snow Blindness. Prevention is very simple. Always wear
sunglasses, with UV protection. If sunglasses are not available, then field
expedient sunglasses can be made from a strip of cardboard with horizontal
slits, and charcoal can be applied under the eyes to cut down on reflection of
the sun off the snow.
e. T reatment of Snow Blindness.
 Evacuation, when possible.
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WSVX.02.14
 Patch the eyes to prevent any more light reaching them.
 Wet compresses, if it is not too cold, may help relieve some of the
discomfort.
 Healing normally takes two days for mild cases or up to a week for
more severe cases.
4) TRENCHFOOT / IMMERSION FOOT
a) D efinition. This is a cold - wet injury to the feet or hands from prolonged
(generally 7 - 10 hours) exposure to water at temperatures above freezing.
b) C auses of Trench foot/Immersion Foot. The major risk factors are wet, cold
and immobility.
c ) S igns and Symptoms of Trench foot/Immersion Foot.
 The major symptom will be pain. Trench foot is an extremely painful
injury.
 Trench foot and frostbite are often very difficult to tell apart just from
looking at it. Often they may both be present at the same time. Signs
include:
 Red and purple mottled skin.
 Patches of white skin.
 Very wrinkled skin.
 Severe cases may leave gangrene and blisters.
 Swelling.
 Lowered or even absent pulse.
 Trench foot is classified from mild to severe.
d) P revention of Trench foot/Immersion Foot is aimed simply at preventing cold,
wet and immobile feet (or hands).
 Keep feet warm and dry.
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 Change socks at least once a day. Let your feet dry briefly during the
change, and wipe out the inside of the boot. Sock changes may be
required more often.
 Exercise. Constant exercising of the feet whenever the body is
otherwise immobile will help the blood flow.
e) T reatment of Trench foot/Immersion Foot.
 All cases of trench foot must be evacuated. It cannot be treated
effectively in the field.
 While awaiting evacuation:
The feet should be dried, warmed, and elevated.
The pain is often severe, even though the injury may appear mild; it
may require medication such as morphine.
 In the rear, the healing of trench foot usually takes at least two months,
and may take almost a year. Severe cases may require amputation.
Trench foot is not to be taken lightly.
B . D EHYDRATION
1. D ehydration is a deficit of total body water. Dehydration will compound the
problems faced in a survival situation. Dehydration is the second leading cause
of all deaths in a survival situation.
a) S ymptoms. When dehydrated, the following signs and symptoms will appear:
 Headache and nausea.
 Dizziness and fainting.
 Cramps, both abdominal and extremity.
 Weakness and lethargy.
 Dark urine with a very strong odor.
b) P revention. Prevention is the key to prevent dehydration. The following are
basic guidelines for the prevention of dehydration:
 Always drink water when eating. Water is used and consumed as a part of
the digestion process. If you have plenty of food but no water – Do not eat
until a source of water can be found.
 Conserve energy. Pace yourself.
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 Drink 6-8 quarts of water per day when available. In other words,
continually drink through out the day. Don’t wait until you are
dehydrated.
 Monitor the color of your urine.
 Don't rely on thirst as an indicator.
2. Heat related illnesses. The following illnesses will appear from dehydration:
1. H eat syncope. Heat syncope is feinting due to vaso-dilation from the heat.
2. H eat exhaustion. Heat exhaustion occurs when body salt losses and
dehydration from sweating are so severe that a person can no longer
maintain adequate blood pressure. Heat exhaustion can lead to heat
stroke.
a) Symptoms include; headaches, nausea, dizziness, fatigue, and
fainting.
3. H eat stroke. Heat stroke is a failure of the body's cooling mechanisms that
rid the body of excessive heat build up.
a ) S igns and symptoms
Symptoms are the same as heat exhaustion . The signs include
delirious or coma, pinpoint pupils, flushed skin, sweating may or
may not be present.
b) H eat cramps. Heat cramps are painful spasms of skeletal muscle as
a result of body salt.
c) All of these illnesses can be detrimental to your survival. Dress
properly, rest and adequate water intake can help prevent these
illnesses.
C . A LTITUDE RELATED ILLNESSES:
1. A cute Mountain Sickness. Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS) is a self-limiting
illness due to the rapid exposure of an unacclimatized individual to high altitude
(i.e., helicopter crash on a mountain). Approximately 25% of individuals who
ascend rapidly to 8,000 – 9,000 feet will develop AMS. Virtually, all unacclimatized
persons who rapidly ascend to 11,00 – 12,000 feet will develop
AMS.
(a) Signs and symptoms include; apathy, dizziness, easily fatigued, nausea,
decreased appetite, headache. Can be misdiagnosed as dehydration. If
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adequate fluid intake is maintained and headache still persists rule out
dehydration.
2. H ACE. HACE or High Altitude Cerebral Edema is swelling of the brain
(a) Sign and symptoms are similar to AMS and accompanied by bizarre behavior,
hallucinations, confusion, and severe cases – coma.
3. HAPE. High Altitude Pulmonary Edema is the filling of the lungs with fluid.
(a) Signs and symptoms include; persistent cough with pink frothy sputum, shortness
of breath, disorientation, fainting, cool and clammy skin, blue lips
(1) T reatment Descend, Descend, and Descend. HACE and HAPE can result in
death.
(2) P revention Gain elevation slowly. 10,000 feet move 1000 feet per day over
14,000 move no faster than 500 – 1,000 feet per day. Rest and acclimatize
your body.
A . C ARBON MONOXIDE POISONING
1. D efinition. Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a heavy, odorless, colorless, tasteless gas
resulting from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels. CO kills through asphyxia even
in the presence of adequate oxygen, because oxygen-transporting hemoglobin has a
210 times greater affinity for CO than for oxygen. What this means is that CO
replaces and takes the place of the oxygen in the body causing Carbon Monoxide
poisoning.
2. S igns/Symptoms. The signs and symptoms depend on the amount of CO the victim
has inhaled. In mild cases, the victim may have only dizziness, headache, and
confusion; severe cases can cause a deep coma. Sudden respiratory arrest may occur.
The classic sign of CO poisoning is cherry-red lip color, but this is usually a very late
and severe sign, actually the skin is normally found to be pale or blue.
CO poisoning should be suspected whenever a person in a poorly ventilated area
suddenly collapses. Recognizing this condition may be difficult when all members
of the party are affected.
3. T reatment. The first step is to immediately remove the victim from the contaminated
area.
a) Victims with mild CO poisoning who have not lost consciousness need fresh air
and light duty for a minimum of four hours. If oxygen is available administer it.
More severely affected victims may require rescue breathing.
b) Fortunately, the lungs excrete CO within a few hours.
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c) P revention. Ensure there is adequate ventilation when utilizing a fire near your
shelter.
6. MEDICAL AID. Unfortunately, during a survival situation, a corpsman may not always be
available to render assistance. Therefore, the survivor must be knowledgeable in basic first aid as
taught in the Marine Battle Skills Training Handbook.
A Four Life Saving Steps
1) Start the breathing.
2) Stop the bleeding.
3) Treat the wound.
4) Check for shock.
B. Wounds. Wounds are actual breaks in the integrity of the skin. Wounds can be
caused by accident or by animals. These wounds are most serious in a survival situation,
not only because of tissue damage and blood loss, but also because of infection. By
taking proper care of the wound you can reduce the chance of a debilitating infection.
C. Animals. Prevention of an animal bite is best accomplished through knowledge of
behavior, personalities, and patterns.
1) Animals generally give ample warning of their intentions, which are to repel the
intruder or permit its escape. Animals that act out of character and approach
humans should be considered rabid and avoided.
2) Tearing, cutting, and crushing injuries are combined in animal bites.
Always look for secondary injuries.
B. D. First Aid. Whether the wound was caused by accident or by animal, the
treatment remains the same.
1) Early cleansing of the wound reduces the chance of bacterial infection and is
extremely effective in removing rabies and other viruses. Cleanse by
irrigation. Bleeding wounds also helps the irrigation process initially.
2) Open wound management is best described by the "open treatment" method.
Do not try to suture or close the wound. This will seal any dirt or infection
into the wound. As long as the wound can drain it will usually not become
life threatening.
a) Maggots
b) Super glue
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c) Shunt
3) T ourniquet in a survival situation. If no rescue or medical aid is likely for
over 2 hours, an attempt to SLOWLY loosen the tourniquet may be made 20
minutes after it is applied:
a) Ensure pressure dressing is in place.
b) Ensure bleeding has stopped.
c) Loosen tourniquet SLOWLY to restore circulation.
d) Leave loosened tourniquet in position in case bleeding resumes.
e) Bandaging is meant to protect the wound from foreign objects (i.e.,
dirt).
f) As with any injury to the body you must increase water intake, more so
with an open wound.
E. Herbal Medicines
1) Consider using herbal medicines only after proper training and when you lack or have
limited medical supplies.
2) W ARNING Some herbal medicines are dangerous and may cause further damage
or even death.
7. CASUALTY EVACUATION. Casualty evacuation in a cold weather mountainous
environment will require a well thought out plan prior to conducting. Poorly planned evacuations
will possibly result in additional casualties, lost time, and equipment damage. In a group survival
situation expedient litter will have to be constructed in order to transport the patient effectively.
A. G eneral Considerations. (WSVX.02.14d) The following considerations are critical
for planning a successful evacuation. A useful acronym to use is “APASSNGG”.
1) A pply Essential First Aid. (i.e., splints, pressure bandage, etc.)
2) P rotect the Patient form the Elements. Provide the casualty with proper
insulation and ensure that he is warm and dry.
3) A void Unnecessary Handling of the Patient.
4) S elect the Easiest Route. Send scouts ahead if possible, to break trails.
5) S et Up Relay Points and Warming Stations. If the route is long and arduous,
set up relay points and warming stations to switch stretcher-bearers and assess
the casualty.
6) N ormal litter teams must be augmented in Arduous Terrain.
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7) G ive Litter Teams Specific Goals to work towards. This job is extremely
tiring, both physically and mentally.
8) G ear. Ensure all of the patient’s gear is kept with him throughout the
evacuation.
8. WILDLIFE DISEASES. (WSVX.02.14e) When handling animals, whether dead or alive,
individuals must use preventive measures against possible exposure to wildlife diseases.
Although the possibility of disease is remote, certain signs may indicate that an animal may be
diseased. The following are some of the more common diseases found in the United States
and throughout the world.
A. H antavirus Pulmonary Syndrome. Hantavirus, or HPS, is a serious respiratory illness
that was first recognized in 1993 in an outbreak in New Mexico and Arizona. It is
caused by a virus that is carried by a common field rodent called the deer mouse.
1) M ethod of Transmission. The virus is shed in the droppings, urine, and saliva
of the deer mouse. The virus is transmitted to humans when the material dries,
becomes airborne and is inhaled.
2) S igns & Symptoms. The disease begins with flu-like symptoms 3 to 45 days
after exposure. The disease can rapidly progress into a life-threatening lower
respiratory illness characterized by the flooding of the lungs with fluid.
3) T reatment. No cure or vaccine is yet available against infection. The sooner
after infection medical treatment is sought, the better the chance of recovery.
4) P revention. Mice should not be handled; rodent dens should not be disturbed.
Package food so that rodents do not crawl all over it. Do not occupy shelters
that may have contained rodents.
B. P lague. The cause of plague is Yersinia pestis, a bacterium that is maintained in nature
through a complex flea-rodent cycle.
1) M ethod of Transmission. Infection in humans results by flea bites, direct contact
with plague-infected rodents, or direct contact with affected non-rodent hosts such
as rabbits, hares, cats, and occasionally other animals.
2) S igns & Symptoms. Infection in humans results in severe disease, with a fatality
rate of over 50% in untreated cases. An abnormal swelling in the lymph nodes is
usually present.
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3) T reatment. Infected people must seek medical treatment.
4) P revention. Animal noted with fleas should be avoided. In a survival situation, a
killed animal should be immediately submerged into a cool water source until all
the fleas are remove by water or have died.
C. T ick Borne Diseases.
1) L yme Disease. Infection occurs most often between May and September. In some
cases, a characteristic skin rash may develop at the site of the tick bite. The rash
may expand to a diameter of 5 inches or more, and there may be an accompanying
flu-like illness. If left untreated, infection can lead to chronic disease characterized
by neurologic impairment, cardiac problems, or arthritis.
2) R ocky Mountain Spotted Fever. The incubation period in humans is 2-14 days.
Initial symptoms are flu-like and commonly include fever, headache, muscle and
joint pain, nausea, and vomiting. A rash may appear. The fatality rate in cases that
are treated with antibiotics is about 5% and up to 25% that are untreated.
3) T reatment. Infected people must seek medical treatment.
4) P revention. Daily body inspections should be conducted to remove all ticks.
D. F ood Borne Diseases. Food borne illness, frequently called “food poisoning,” is
acquired by eating food that is contaminated with microbes or their toxins. Live
animals may carry the agent, or contamination may occur from another source during
processing or preparation of the food.
1) B otulism. Botulism probably is the most widely known and is generally caused by
improper storage of meats. Symptoms may begin with vomiting and diarrhea but
proceed to the characteristic impaired vision and descending paralysis. Botulism
can be fatal.
2) S almonella. The bacteria are found in the intestinal tracts and feces of a wide
range of animals including poultry, swine, cattle, and household pets. Salmonella
maybe fatal.
3) T richinosis. Trichinosis is caused by a parasite contained within the muscle tissue.
Most common carriers are wild swine and bear. Thorough cooking of meats will
destroy the parasite.
4) T ularemia. Discovered in Tulare County, California. Tularemia has been reported
in over 45 species of vertebrates; however, the disease most often involves ticks. It
is also commonly found in rabbits and rodents. It is transmittable by uncooked
meats or handling contaminated meats with open sores. Tularemia is a lifethreatening
disease found throughout the world and can only be treated with
antibiotics.
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5) T reatment. Consuming charcoal will aid in reducing the body’s absorption rate.
Medical treatment should be sought if available.
6) P revention. Prevention of food borne diseases can be accomplished by:
a) Promptly dress game.
b) Avoid or minimize contamination by gastrointestinal contents.
c) Cook food thoroughly. Internal cooking temperatures should be 165
degrees F or more.
d) Eat cooked foods immediately.
e) Store preserved foods properly.
E. A nimal Scat. Certain parasites found on scat can infect humans, if the scat is handled
unprotected. Raccoon Roundworm can be found in the scat for at least 30 days, while
Fox Roundworm will last only approximately 7 days on their scat. Both of these
parasites can possibly infect human, which is almost fatal.
REFERENCE:
1. FM 21-76, Survival, 1996.
2. Paul S. Auerbach, Wilderness Medicine, 3rd Edition, 1995.
3. William R. Davidson, Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases in the United States, 2nd Edition,
1997
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