MILITARY SURVIVAL MANUAL:VOL 4

UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS
Mountain Warfare Training Center
Bridgeport, California 93517-5001
WSVX.02.07
2/6/05
STUDENT HANDOUT
SURVIVAL NAVIGATION
TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE. In cold weather mountainous environment, navigate in a
survival situation, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.07)
ENABLING LEARNING OBJECTIVES
(1) Without the aid of references, list in writing the considerations for travel, in accordance with
the references. (WSVX.02.07a)
(2) Without the aid of references, describe in writing the seasonal relationship of the sun and its
movement during the equinox and solstice, in accordance with the references.
(WSVX.02.07b)
(3) Without the aid of references, and given a circular navigational chart and operating latitude,
determine the bearing of the sun at sunrise and sunset, in accordance with the references.
(WSVX.02.07c)
(4) Without the aid of references, construct a pocket navigator, in accordance with the
references. (WSVX.02.07d)
(5) Without the aid of references, describe in writing the two methods for locating the North
Star, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.07e)
OUTLINE
1. C ONSIDERATIONS FOR STAYING OR TRAVELLING. (WSVX.02.07a)
a. Stay with the aircraft or vehicle if possible. More than likely somebody knows where it was
going. It is also a ready-made shelter.
b. Leave only when:
(1) Certain of present location, have known destination, and the ability to get there.
(2) Water, food, shelter, and/or help can be reached.
(3) Convinced that rescue is not coming.
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c. If the decision is made to travel, the following must also be considered:
(1) Which direction to travel and why.
(2) What plan is to be followed.
(3) What equipment should be taken.
(4) How to mark the trail.
(5) Predicted weather.
d. If the tactical situation permits leave the following information at the departure point:
(1) Departure time.
(2) Destination.
(3) Route of travel/direction.
(4) Personal condition.
(5) Available supplies.
2. DAYTIME SURVIVAL NAVIGATION
a. S un Movement. It is taken for granted the sun rises in the east and sets in the west. This is quite
misleading. In fact, depending on an observer’s latitude and the season, the sun could rise and
set up to 50 degrees off of true east and west.
Position of the Sun at Equinox and Solstice
(1) Summer/Winter Solstice: (21 June/21 December) Two times during the year
when the sun has no apparent northward or southward motion.
(2) Vernal/Autumnal Equinox: (20 March/23 September) Two times during the
year when the sun crosses the celestial equator and the length of day and night
are approximately equal.
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SEASONAL RELATIONSHIP
b. S un’s Movement. (WSVX.02.07b) As reflected in the diagram above, the earth continuously
moves in a cycle from solstice to equinox; throughout each day, however, the sun appears to
travels in a uniform arc across the sky from sunrise to sunset. Exactly half-way along its daily
journey, the sun will be directly south of an observer (or north if the observer is in the Southern
Hemisphere). This rule may not apply to observers in the tropics (between 23.5 degrees north and
south latitude) or in the polar regions (60 degrees latitude). It is at this point that shadows will
appear their shortest. The time at which this occurs is referred to as “local apparent noon.”
c. S un’s Bearing. (WSVX.02.07c) With an understanding of the sun’s daily movement, as well as
its seasonal paths, a technique is derived that will determine the true bearing of the sun at sunrise
and sunset. With the aid of a circular navigational chart, we can accurately navigate based on the
sun’s true bearing:
(1) Determine the sun’s maximum amplitude at your operating latitude using the top portion of
the chart. MWTC operating latitude is 38 degrees.
(2) Scale the center baseline of the chart where 0 appears as the middle number; write in the
maximum amplitude on the horizontal north / south baseline.
(3) Continue to scale the baseline; you should divide the baseline into 6 to 10 tick marks that
represent equal divisions of the maximum amplitude.
(4) From today’s date along the circumference, draw a straight line down until it intersects the
baseline.
(5) The number this line intersects is today’s solar amplitude. If the number is left of 0, it is a
“north” amplitude; if the number is right of 0, it is a “south” amplitude. Use the formula at
the bottom of the chart to determine the sun’s bearing at sunrise or sun set.
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Circular Navigational Chart
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d. S hadow Stick Construction. This technique will achieve a cardinal direction within 10 degrees of
accuracy if done within two hours of local apparent noon. Once again, this technique may be
impractical near the polar regions as shadows tend to be very long; similarly, in the tropics
shadows are generally very small. Can only be used within 2 hours of local apparent noon.
(1) Get a straight, 3-6 foot stick free of branches and pointed at the ends and 3-5 small markers:
i.e., sticks, rocks, or nails.
(2) Place the stick upright in the ground and mark the shadow tip with a marker.
(3) Wait 10-15 minutes and mark shadow tip again with a marker.
(4) Repeat this until all of the markers are used.
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SHADOW STICK METHOD
(5) The markers will form a West—East line.
(6) Put your left foot on the first marker and your right foot on the last marker, you will then be
facing north.
e. L ocal Apparent Noon. Whenever using any type of shadow casting device to determine
direction, “local apparent noon” (or the sun’s highest point during the day) must be known. Local
apparent noon can be determined by the following methods.
(1) Knowing sunrise and sunset from mission orders, i.e., sunrise 0630 and sunset 1930. Take the
total amount of daylight (13 hours), divide by 2 (6 hours 30 minutes), and add to sunrise
(0630 plus 6 hours 30 minutes). Based on this example, local apparent noon would be 1300.
(2) Using the string method. The string method is used to find two equidistant marks before and
after estimated solar noon. The center point between these two marks represents local
apparent noon.
2. P OCKET NAVIGATOR. (WSVX.02.07d) The only material required is a small piece of
cardboard or other flat-surface material, a watch, a pen or pencil, and a 1 to 2 inch pin or nail.
a. Set this tiny rod upright on your flat piece of material so that the sun will cause it to cast a
shadow. Mark the position where the base of the rod sits so it can be returned to the same spot
for later readings. Place the navigator flat on level ground. Secure the navigator from wind by
placing rocks on it. Write the date and mark the tip of the shadow.
b. As the sun moves the shadow-tip moves. Make repeated shadow-tip markings every 15 minutes.
As you make the marks on the tip of the shadow ensure that you write down the time.
c. At the end of the day, connect the shadow-tip markings. The result will normally be a curved
line. The arch will be less pronounced closer to the vernal or autumnal equinoxes (March 20 and
September 23). If it is not convenient or the tactical situation does not permit to take a full day's
shadow-tip readings, your observation can be continued on the following day by orienting the
pocket navigator on the ground so that the shadow-tip is aligned with a previously plotted points.
d. The markings made at the sun's highest point during the day, or solar noon, is the north—south
line. The direction of north should be indicated with an arrow on the navigator as soon as it is
determined. This north-south line is drawn from the base of the rod to the mark made at solar
noon. This line is the shortest line that can be drawn from the base of the pin to the shadow-tip
curve.
e. To use your pocket navigator, hold it so that with the shadow-tip is aligned with a plotted point at
the specified point. i.e.; if it is now 0900 the shadow-tip must be aligned with that point. This
will ensure that your pocket navigator is level. The drawn arrow is now oriented to true north,
from which you can orient yourself to any desired direction of travel.
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f. The pocket navigator will work all day and will not be out of date for approximately one week.
NNW (327.5) NNE (22.5)
N (0/360)
NW (315) NE (45)
WNW (292.5) ENE (67.5)
W (270) E (90)
FILL BOTTOM HALF TO
COMPLETE CIRCLE
POCKET NAVIGATOR
4. NIGHTTIME SURVIVAL NAVIGATION
a. M ark North. To aid you in navigating at night, it is beneficial to watch where the sun goes down.
If you're going to start moving after dark mark the northerly direction.
b. L ocating the North Star. There are two methods used in locating the North Star.
(WSVX.02.07e)
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(1) U sing the Big Dipper (Ursa Major). The best indictors are the two "dippers ". The North
Star is the last star in the handle of the little dipper, which is not the easiest constellation
to find. However, the Big Dipper is one of the most prominent constellations in the
Northern Hemisphere. The two lowest stars of the Big Dipper's cup act as pointers to the
North Star. If you line up these two stars, they make a straight line that runs directly to
the North Star. The distance to the North Star along this line is 5 times that between the
two pointer stars.
(2) U sing Cassiopeia (Big M or W). Draw a line straight out from the center star,
approximately half the distance to the Big Dipper. The North Star will be located there.
LOCATING THE NORTH STAR
NOTE: Because the Big Dipper and Cassiopeia rotate around the North Star, they will not always
appear in the same position in the sky. In the higher latitudes, the North Star is less effective for the
purpose of orienting because it appears higher in the sky. At the center of the Arctic circle, it would be
directly overhead, and all directions lead South.
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c. S outhern Cross. In the Southern Hemisphere, Polaris is not visible. The Southern Cross is the
most distinctive constellation. An imaginary line through the long axis of the Southern Cross, or
True Cross, points towards a dark spot devoid of stars approximately three degrees offset from
the South Pole. The True Cross should not be confused with the larger cross nearby known as the
False Cross, which is less bright, more widely spaced, and has five stars. The True Cross can be
confirmed by the two closely spaced very bright stars that trail behind the crosspiece. These two
stars are often easier to pick out than the cross itself. Look for them. Two of the stars in the
True Cross are among the brightest stars in the heavens; they are the stars on the southern and
eastern arms. The stars on the northern and western arms are not as apparent.
Note: The imaginary point depicted in the picture is the dark spot devoid of stars.
SOUTHERN CROSS
d. M oon Navigator. Like the sun, the moon rises in the east and sets in the west. Use the same
method of the shadow stick as you did during the day. However, lunar illumination is not
consistent and can be obscured by clouds.
5. I MPROVISED COMPASSES. There are three improvised techniques to construct a compass. We
will cover them in order of most reliable to least.
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a. MAGNET TECHNIQUE. The magnet technique works best. The magnets you are most
likely to have available to you are those in a speaker or headphones of a radio. Keep the end
of the needle on the battery for a minimum of 2 minutes. But of course you could keep the
needle attached to the battery as long as needed.
1. A small piece of iron or steel that is long, thin, and light. Aluminum or yellow
metals won't work (only things that rust will do). A pin or needle (the smaller the
better) is perfect, but a straightened paper clip, piece of steel baling wire, or barbed
wire could also work.
2. Float the metal on still water using a piece of isomat, wood chip, or leaf. Gather
some water in a non-magnetic container or a scooped out recess in the ground, such as
a puddle. Do not use a "tin can" which is made of steel. (an aluminum can would
work.) Place the float on the water, then the metal on it. It will slowly turn to orient
itself. Repeat the process several times to confirm your direction.
(a). You could also hang you’re needle from a thread. There must be no drafts. This
method is not very reliable.
b. M AGNETIZATION THROUGH A BATTERY. A power source of 2 volts or more from a
battery can be used with a short length of insulated wire to magnetize metal. Coil the wire
around a needle. If the wire is non-insulated, wrap the needle with paper or cardboard. Attach
the ends to the battery terminals for 5 minutes. You must tightly coil the wire around the
needle for it to work, and the battery must not be weak or you will encounter the same
problems as the synthetic technique.
c. SYNTHETIC TECHNIQUE. Does not magnetize the metal strong enough to hold a true
reading, especially if there is any wind. Might give one correct reading out of five and it
could be off up to 45 degrees.
d. A SSOCIATED PROBLEMS WITH IMPROVISED COMPASSES. The following are
common problems with all improvised compasses.
(1) Soft steel tends to lose its magnetism fairly quickly, so you will have to re-magnetize
your needle occasionally, though you should not have to do this more than two or
three times a day.
(2) Test your compass by disturbing it after it settles. Do this several times. If it returns to
the same alignment, you're OK. It will be lined up north and south, though you will
have to determine by other means which end is north. Use the sun, stars, or any
other natural signs in the area.
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6. N ATURAL NAVIGATION.
a. Find out where the prevailing winds originate.
b. Sun’s path in Northern Hemisphere is SE-SW
1. B end in trees because of prevailing winds.
2. S apling Coloration: whiter on one side, darker green on the other. The sunny side (south
side) will cause the tree to turn whitish which is a natural sunscreen. White will be on the
SW to SE side of the tree. Pick one that is in the open, exposed to the elements all day.
3. H ottest side of a slope will enhance growth: thicker vegetation the SW side.
.
4. S now melt on one prominent side of the tree: melt/freeze will indicate the south side.
5. B leach Rock: the sun’s rays has a bleaching effect, lighter side will be to the south.
Obviously white rocks are just white rocks.
c. Look for more than one sign to confirm your direction.
7. SURVIVAL NAVIGATION TECHNIQUES
a. Navigator.
a(
1) Employ a navigation method.
(2) Find the cardinal direction.
(3) Pick a steering mark in the desired direction of travel.
b. M aintain a Log. The possibility may arise when you will not have a map of the area. A log will
decrease the chance of walking in circles.
(1) Construction.
(a) Use any material available to you i.e., paper, clothing, MRE box, etc.
(b) Draw a field sketch annotating North, prominent terrain features and distance /
direction traveled.
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(c) Write down any important information seen such as; enemy movements or positions,
game, vegetation, roads, trails, etc…
(2) Maintenance.
(a) Maintain and update field sketch as movement progresses.
(b) Ensure readability of your field sketch. (i.e.; don't clutter the sketch so much
it can't be read.) Keep it simply so anyone would be able to understand it.
c. D uring Movement Constantly Refer To.
(1) Log.
(2) Steering marks.
d. A ctions If You Become Lost.
(1) Immediate action.
(a) Orient your sketch.
(2) Corrective action.
(a) Backtrack using steering marks until you have determined the location of your
error.
(b) Re-orient your sketch.
(c) Select direction of travel and continue to march.
REFERENCE:
1. FM 21-76, Survival, 1992.
2. AFM 64-5, Survival, 1969.
3. David Seidmond, The Essential Wilderness Navigator, 1995.
4. Aircrew Survival 1996.
5. Wilderness Way magazine, Natural Navigation Part 1.
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UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS
Mountain Warfare Training Center
Bridgeport, California 93517-5001
WSVX.02.08
2/6/05
STUDENT OUTLINE
TRAPS AND SNARES
TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE In a cold weather mountainous environment, take
game, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.08)
ENABLING LEARNING OBJECTIVES
(1) Without the aid of references, list in writing the eight general considerations to take
game, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.08a)
(2) Without the aid of references, list in writing the general techniques to take game, in
accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.08b)
(3) Without the aid of references, list in writing the requirements for snaring and
trapping, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.08c)
(4) Without the aid of references, employ a snare, in accordance with the references.
(WSVX.02.08d)
(5) Without the aid of references, list in writing the types of triggers, in accordance with
the references. (MSVX.02.08e)
(6) Without the aid of references, employ a trap, in accordance with the references.
(WSVX.02.08f)
(7) Without the aid of references, employ a noise producing path guard, in accordance
with the references. (WSVX.02.08g)
OUTLINE
1. G ENERAL CONSIDERATIONS TO TAKE GAME (WSVX.02.08a)
A. G eneral Considerations. Knowing a few general hints and tips will make the
trapping of animals easier and considerably more effective. The eight general
considerations to take game are:
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(1) K now your game. Knowing the habits of the animal you want to trap or
snare will help increase your chances. Such things as when and where they
move, feed, and water will help you determine where the set can be most
effectively placed.
(2) K eep things simple. You don't have time in a survival situation to construct
elaborate sets and they do not necessarily do a better job.
(3) P lace sets in the right place. Animals will travel and stop in certain locations.
That is where to build sets.
(4) C over up your scent. Animals will avoid a set which smells threatening or
unusual to them (i.e., human scent or P.O.L.’s from equipment or clothing).
(a) Man leaves a scent through the pores of the skin by the sweat glands.
Use an odorless contact glove when building a set. It may take up to
three days for your scent to dissipate if made without gloves.
(b) Certain boot soles and clothing may leave a scent, generally this can be
detected by the human nose. If noticed, attempt to mask the scent with
smoke from your fire.
(5) U se the right type of set. Certain sets work better than others do for a
particular animal.
(6) U se the correct equipment. Using the correct equipment is paramount to
success. This includes the weight of the lifting device in proportion to the
animal’s weight, the cordage or wire to hold the animal’s strength, and trigger
tension.
(7) C heck sets. Check your sets twice daily: morning and evening. Checking
your traps less than twice a day can allow your game to escape, rot, or be
taken by other predators.
(8) L ure your sets. Lures will add to your chances of success. Certain lures are
appropriate at certain times of the year, depending upon the animal desired.
(a) Bait Lures.
-MRE peanut butter, cheese spread, or jelly.
-Dead carcasses.
-Dead rodents.
(b) Gland or Territorial Lures.
-Animal Urine mixed with beaver castors or animal glands.
(c) Curiosity Lures.
-Single feather, bird wing, piece of fur tied and suspended under a
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tree limb, allowed to freely move with the breeze.
2. G eneral Techniques to kill animals. (WSVX.02.08b) A general technique is the
method in which the trap is intended to kill the animal. The acronym "SICK" is useful in
remembering these techniques.
A. S - Strangle. This method strangles the animal, such as a snare.
B. I mpale. This method pushes a stake through the animal, such as a spiked
dead fall.
C. C - Crush. This method crushes the animal, such as a deadfall for a chipmunk.
D. K - Knock. This method knocks a larger animal unconscious, such as a
deadfall.
3. S NARE NOMENCLATURE AND IMPROVISED SNARES. A snare in nothing
more than a piece of wire, rope, or cord with a loop at one end, which tightens down
around animal’s neck. Snares are much easier and less time consuming to construct than
traps, while producing better results.
A. W ire. Although snares can be used with rope or cord, they are less effective than
wire. Wire should have memory and resist kinking. Aircraft cable type 7x7, in
sizes 1/16 to 3/8 inch should be used. This type of wire prevents animal chew out
and resists breakage. Remember that you want the smallest diameter cable capable
of holding the animal.
B. L ocking device. A locking device is imperative for a snare to work properly.
Locking devices secure the snare around the animal’s neck. There are several
methods available for a locking device.
COMMERCIAL BENT WASHER
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KNOT
4. S NARING. In a winter environment, snaring is the most effective means to take game
A. R equirements for snaring. (MSVX.02.08c) There are three requirements to
effectively employ snares. They are location, presentation, and construction.
1) L ocation. Location is paramount to success. The following guide can assist
you.
a) Coyotes, Foxes, and Badger. Along rarely traveled roads, fire lanes,
irrigation ditches, fence lines, in saddles, along ridge tops, meadow
borders, by carcasses.
b) Bobcat and Lynx. At bases of cliffs and large rock faces; on ridges and
saddle crossing; along stream bottoms. Cats need security so rarely get
far from tree, brush or escape cover.
c) Raccoon, Opossum, Skunk, and Ring-tailed Cats. Stream beds and
banks; trails along stream beds, ponds, rivers and other water courses;
Raccoons like a combination of water, old mature trees, buildings and
junk piles, and a consistent food supply like grain or prepared feed.
d) Weasel. Marshy, grassy meadows.
e) Marten and Fisher. Along meadow edges, ridgelines, and downfalls.
f) Mink. Under bridges; around culverts, tiles and junk in or near
streams, rivers and lakes, springs and seeps, Muskrat and Beaver
lodges and dams. Mink will stop and investigate nearly every hole or
cavity around a streambed.
g) Beaver and Muskrat. Around the food cache under the ice.
h) Rabbits. In thick willow stands along runs and trails.
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2) P resentation. Presentation is the type of set for the intended animal. Cubbie
sets work well for bobcat, raccoon, marten, fisher, opossum, and skunk while
trail sets work well for coyote, fox, mink, and rabbit.
3) C onstruction. Construction is the actual building of the set.
a) A split stick is utilized to support the snare and ensure the snare fires
properly. The split stick can be either green or seasoned wood.
However, the snare must not slip through the split. The locking device
must be next to the split stick. The split stick must be securely placed
in the ground. ( If you are utilizing a weighted snare the locking device
may be in the 12 o’clock position.)
b) The snare must be anchored or attached to a drag.
c) The snare must be loaded so it will fire quickly.
d) L oop size. A correctly employed snare will have the snare holding the
animal around the neck. Loop size is placed on the snare according to
the intended animal. Too large will result in a body or leg catch,
resulting in possible chew out or breakage. Too small will enable the
animal to force the snare to the side, resulting in a miss. Additionally,
the loop must be placed with specific ground clearance. Ideally, the
bottom of the loop should hit the intended animal chest high. The
snare trigger is that part of the loop which hits the animals chest.
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ANIMAL NOOSE SIZE GROUND CLEARANCE
SQUIRREL 2 1/2 TO 3 INCHES 1/2 TO 1 1/2 INCHES
RABBIT 4 TO 5 1/2 INCHES 1 1/2 TO 3 INCHES
RACCOON 6 INCHES 3 TO 4 INCHES
FOX 7 TO 10 INCHES 8 TO 10 INCHES
COYOTES 12 TO 14 INCHES 12 INCHES
BOBCAT 9 INCHES 8 INCHES
Note: -Noose size is the diameter of the snare loop.
-Ground clearance is measured from the bottom of the loop to the ground.
e) F encing. The objective of fencing is to have the animal move through
the “path of least resistance” or more importantly the snare. Fencing
must be subtle and not over done.
f) L ure. In a survival situation, you will not be able to employ numerous
snares. Luring all snares increases your chances of success. However,
it is not necessary for trail sets.
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5. S NARE SETS. (MSVX.2.8d) Although there are numerous ideas to employ snares,
here are a few.
CUBBIE SET
TRAIL SET
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DEN SET
VARIOUS LOG SETS
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UNDER THE ICE BEAVER SET
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6. I MPROVISED TRAPS. Improvised traps are made from a variety of materials.
Generally, they incorporate a means to kill the animal (i.e., loop or weight) by the use of a
trigger.
A. T ypes of Triggers. (WSVX.02.08e) There are two basic triggers used for all
traps and path guards. Depending on the situation, variations of these triggers can
be used.
1) T oggle.
a. S pring Pole. The spring pole requires a small sapling and cordage to
construct. The trigger for the spring pole is the toggle. It is designed to
lift the animal off the ground; not allowing predatory animals to take
your game. Remember, the trigger can not be so tight that the intended
game can not set it off. The spring pole can freeze in position.
SPRING POLE
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2) I nverted Figure 4.
B. C onstruction of improvised traps. (WSVX.2.8f) Traps are designed to hold or
kill animals by use of some type of action. This action is generally caused by
either a weight or spring loaded device.
1) W eighted Lift Pole. The lift pole requires a small sapling and cordage to
construct. The trigger for the "spring" or "lift" pole is a variation of the
toggle. It is designed to lift the animal off the ground, preventing predatory
animals from taking game. Remember, the trigger can not be so tight that
the intended game can not tip it.
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WEIGHTED LIFT
WEIGHTED LIFT
2) B aited Treble Hook. Tie a large treble hook onto a tree limb high enough
to cause the animal to jump but not so high it cannot reach it. Bait the
treble hook.
7. PATH GUARDS (WSVX.02.08g) Path guards are designed to protect and provide security
for
your shelter area against the enemy and predatory animals. They are classified according to
noise or casualty producing path guards.
A. N oise producing path guards. Noise producing pathguards serve as an alarm for
your shelter area. When triggered, it should produce some type of loud noise.
Although construction can vary, depending on materials available, one example is
as follows:
1) Secure an inverted figure 4 trigger to a tree.
2) On the weighted end of the trigger, attach several pieces of metal to the
cord. Use whatever is available for metal.
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3) Attach a trip cord to the trigger stick. Run the trip cord across the trail and
anchor on the far side.
4) Place a solid object (i.e., wood, and rocks) underneath the suspended
metal. When triggered, the metal should fall on top of the solid object;
making an audible noise.
B. C asualty producing path guards. Casualty producing path guards in a winter
environment are difficult to construct. When triggered, they should cause death or
injury to the enemy or predatory animal. A large-scale deadfall trap can be
modified for a casualty producing path guards.
1) Sharpen spikes and secure them on the underside of the deadfall. Spikes
can be poisoned.
2) Set up an inverted figure 4 trigger with trip cord as discussed for the noise
producing path guard.
3) Set the deadfall to land across the trip cord along the trail.
4) Creativity and ingenuity are the keys to effectively employing pathguards.
REFERENCE:
1. Dr. Major L. Boddicker, Trapping Rocky Mountain Furbearers, 1980.
2. Raymond Thompson, Snares and Snaring, 3rd Edition 1996.
3. Chris Janowski, A Manual that could save your life, 1989.
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