MILITARY SURVIVAL MANUAL:VOL 7

UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS
Mountain Warfare Training Center
Bridgeport, California 93517-5001
WSVX .02.12
02/06/05
STUDENT HANDOUT
EXPEDIENT SNOWSHOES
TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE In a cold weather mountainous environment, execute
snowshoe movement, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.12)
ENABLING LEARNING OBJECTIVES
(1) Without the aid of references, state in writing the purpose of expedient snowshoes, in
accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.12a)
(2) Without the aid of references, list in writing the characteristics for good expedient
snowshoes, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.12b)
(3) Without the aid of references, construct one expedient snowshoe, in accordance with
the references. (WSVX.02.12c)
OUTLINE
1. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EXPEDIENT SNOWSHOES
a. Advantages of Expedient Snowshoes.
(1) M obility. (WSVX.02.12a) The purpose of expedient snowshoes is to give a
means of over the snow mobility by providing floatation.
(2) M aintenance. Limited maintenance is required to keep them serviceable.
(3) H eavy Loads. Carrying and pulling heavy loads on gentle terrain is relatively
easy.
(4) C onfined Areas. Movement in confined areas and around equipment is
relatively easy.
b. Disadvantages of Expedient Snowshoes.
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(1) M aterials. Constructing a pair of expedient snowshoes will consume a lot of
material (i.e., it takes approximately 70 feet of 550 cord to build one shoe).
(2) T errain. Movement over moderate to steep slopes is extremely difficult.
(3) V egetation. Movement through thickly forested areas or terrain with branches
protruding through the snow is difficult.
(4) N atural Material. The green staves used in construction will shrink during the
drying process. This shrinkage will require all lashing to be retied.
2. NOMENCLATURE OF EXPEDIENT SNOWSHOES
a. Tip. The front portion of the snowshoe frame.
b. Tail. The rear portion of the snowshoe frame.
c. Crossbars. Three crossbars are lashed to the frame for reinforcement.
a. W ebbing. Webbing is designed to provided floatation of the shoe and release snow
when the shoe is lifted. It is generally made from some type of cord (i.e., 550, comm
wire).
e. Window. This is the opening in the snowshoe, which allows the toe of the boot to
pivot. Without the window, the boot will continue to force the tip into the snow during
forward movement.
f. Frame. Made from resilient green saplings (i.e., willow, aspen).
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g. Binding. The binding is used to attach the boot to the shoe. It is made from an 8 to 10
foot piece of cord.
NOMENCLATURE OF EXPEDIENT SNOWSHOE
BINDING
3. CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPEDIENT SNOWSHOES. (WSVX.02.12b)
a. Stability. Stability is the most important characteristic. Snowshoes must be able to
undergo great strain and pressure. Careful consideration must be given to the selection
of materials used in construction.
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(1) Materials used can vary.
(a) Resilient green saplings.
(b) Aluminum aircraft skin and ribbed framing.
(c) Cordage.
(d) Wire.
(e) Cargo strapping.
(f) Initiative and creativity are the key to success.
b. Provide Floatation. Without over-the-snow mobility movement becomes difficult
and/or dangerous. Clothing will become wet and “post holing” will consume too much
energy, which is vital in a survival situation. Increasing the surface area upon which
your body rests will facilitate more efficient movement on the snow.
4. CONSTRUCTION OF EXPEDIENT SNOWSHOES. (WSVX.02.12c) These snowshoes
will work if staves are thick and sufficient quantity of cordage is available. Use these general
construction techniques as a guide.
a. Select three straight, resilient, green staves: 5 feet in length and 1 to 1.5 inches in
diameter. Cut one of these staves into three sections, measuring 15 inches for each
section.
b. Join the two 5 feet staves at the tips and tails using a shear lash. This is the snowshoe
frame.
c. Attach the 15 inch sections to the frame: the first section 12-14 inches from the tip, the
second section 4-6 inches below the first section, and the last section 15 inches below
the second section. All sections are secured to the frame using a square lash. These
sections are the crossbars.
d. Affix the latticework to the frame to form the webbing, working from the first crossbar
towards the tip. Attach a second latticework from the second crossbar towards the tail.
Note: If cord or wire is limited, space out the latticework. Branches or bough can be interwoven
to increase floatation.
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SQUARE LASH
e. Attach the boot to the snowshoe using the cord binding system.
Note: All pigtails are secured together by a square knot with two overhand knots.
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5. CANADIAN EMERGENCY SNOWSHOES. The Canadian emergency showshoes are an
excellent method if saplings are available and cordage is limited.
a. Select 5 poles, 6 feet long (individual’s height), ¾ inch (thumb size) at the base, ¼
inch (little finger size) at the tip for one shoe.
b. Cut 5 sticks approximately 10 inches long and ¾ inch wide for each shoe and tie them
in the following steps.
(1) Lash one stick to the snowshoe’s tail (across the heavy end of the 5 poles).
(2) Lash 2 sticks across the poles where the heel will rest.
(3) Lash 2 sticks across the poles where the toe will rest.
(4) Secure the tips together.
c. Attach the boot to the snowshoe using the cord binding system..
6. SNOW SHOE TECHNIQUE.
a. G eneral. There is little difference in snow shoeing compared to normal walking,
except that the surface being walked on is inconsistent, and snowshoes are longer,
wider, heavier, and consequently more awkward, than normal footwear. With
standard military snowshoes, the stride is somewhat longer than in normal walking,
but the shape of the snowshoe allows the snow shoer’s stance to be a normal width,
thereby reducing much strain and fatigue on his hips and legs. Its should be stressed
that the snowshoer should walk in a relaxed, and normal rolling toe manner, and
should only lift the snowshoe high enough to clear the surface of the snow.
b. Turning.
(1) T he kick turn. This is normally the easiest way to change directions on level
ground. One snowshoe is swung up to the front so that its tail is on the snow,
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then it is allowed to pivot towards the new direction. The other snowshoe is
then brought around.
(a) O n steep terrain. It is important to remember to step off with the uphill
foot, when changing direction. For example: if making a turn to the
right, shift your weight to the left foot, face down the slope, and swing
the right snow shoe around to point in the direction of the next
switchback. Then stamp the right snowshoe into the snow. Make sure
the tail is not on the left snowshoe. Now, gently shift your weight to
your right foot and swing the left snowshoe around so it is parallel
with your right snowshoe.
(b) E ach succeeding man. When using the kick turn technique on steep
terrain, try and stay well above your previous trail. This trail has
undermined the snow on which you are now building the turn. As each
succeeding man uses the turn, it will tend to slough off on the
shoulders, and the men toward the end of the column will have a hard
time getting around. This can be prevented if care is used by each man
in placing his snowshoes precisely where those in front of him have
placed theirs. If there is only one way around an obstacle, this can be
very important.
(2) T he star turn. This can also be used to change direction by simply executing a
series of half facing movements.
(3) C hoosing a route. When climbing, plan to use the gentlest places on a slope
for turns. Look ahead, and pick the route, using the terrain to your advantage.
Avoid the steep terrain and don’t hesitate to make short switchbacks.
c. Side Step. This is used when the slope is at a critical angle.
d. Herringbone. This is used when the slope is at a gradual angle.
e. Crossing Obstacles. Here are a few simple rules to remember.
(1) A lways step over obstacles. Do this to avoid damaging snowshoes and losing
balance.
(2) N ever bridge a gap. Bridging a gap is when the snowshoe tip and tail are
supporting your weight, while the center of the shoe is suspended.
(3) S hallow snow. In shallow snow, there is a danger of catching, and tearing the
webbing on tree stumps, or snag, which are only slightly covered.
(4) W et snow. This will frequently ball up under the feet, interfering with
comfortable walking. This snow should be knocked off as soon as possible.
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(5) D eep loose snow. Movement in deep loose snow is very exhausting if not on
an existing trail. Trail breaking responsibilities should be rotated frequently if
in a group.
REFERENCE:
1. AF 64-4, Search and Rescue Survival Training, 1985.
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UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS
Mountain Warfare Training Center
Bridgeport, California 93517-5001
WSVX.02.13
2/6/05
STUDENT HANDOUT
WINTER TRACKING
TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE In a cold weather mountainous environment, conduct
tracking, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.13)
ENABLING LEARNING OBJECTIVES
(1) Without the aid of references, describe in writing the types of gaits, in accordance
with the references. (WSVX.02.13a)
(2) Without the aid of references, describe in writing the tracks of the major animal
families, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.13b)
(3) Without the aid of references and given an animal hide, identify the animal, in
accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.13c)
(4) Without the aid of references, list in writing the factors that determines track age, in
accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.13d)
(5) In a cold weather mountainous environment and given a designated area with tracks,
estimate unit size, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.13e)
OUTLINE
1. B asic Terminology. Prior to discussing tracking, some basic terms must be understood:
a. T rails and Runs. In any area, there will be many thoroughfares or trails and runs.
Some may be seasonal, while others may be used by many different species. Runs are
infrequently or intermittently used thoroughfares that connect trails to specific
feeding, bedding, or watering areas. If trails are like highways connecting cities and
towns, runs are like streets providing access to the gas stations, supermarkets, and
neighborhoods.
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b. B eds and Lays. Beds are frequently used sleeping areas commonly referred to as dens
or burrows. These can be found in hollow logs, trees, rock piles, brush piles, grass,
thickets, or even out in the open. A lay is an infrequently used resting or sleeping
spot. It is rarely used more than once.
c. R ubs. Some rubs are accidental and some are deliberate. Accidental rubs can be in a
burrow, on a trail, or over/under a fallen tree across a trail. Deliberate rubs can be
when an animal scratches a hard-to-reach spot, or when a deer scrapes its antlers
against a tree to remove its velvet.
d. S cratches. They also can be accidental or deliberate. Accidental scratches are left by
animals climbing trees or on a log where it left a belly rub. Deliberate scratches can
be found at the base of trees where they have reached up and raked their claws
downward for any number of reasons. Scratches can also be found in the ground
where cats have buried scat, squirrels have cached nuts, or animals are digging at a
scent.
e. T ransference. Transference is the removal of material from one area onto another.
Transference can occur when walking along a muddy stream bank and crossing a log.
The mud left on the log is considered transference.
f. C ompression. Compression is the actual flattening of the soil or snow pack. It is
caused by the pressing down or leveling of soil, sand, stones, twigs, or leaves by the
weight of the body. Compression is more likely to be found in frozen, hard, dry, sandy
conditions where there is no moisture to hold a clear and lasting imprint.
g. D isturbance. Disturbance is the eye-catching effect of unnatural patterns. This is very
common in a snow covered environment, examples are:
(1) Shoveling snow- while the initial tossed snow is transference, once it melts it will
disturb the top layer of the snow pack, leaving an unnatural pattern.
(2) Forward movement- all forward movement, man or animal, will kick snow
forward. The initial tossed snow is transference, but becomes disturbance once
the snow has melted.
h. G ait. (WSVX.02.13a) A gait is generally the way an animal moves. Gaits are very
critical in the identification of animal tracks. Although certain gaits are more
indicative of certain animals, they may (depending on the circumstances) modify or
alter their gait to another style.
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(1) D iagonal Walker. Normal pattern for all predatory animals, which includes all
dogs, cats, hoofed animals, and man.
(2) P acers. Normal pattern for all wide-bodied animals such as bears, raccoon,
opossum, skunk, wolverine, badger, beaver, porcupine, muskrat, and marmot.
Instead of moving opposite sides of the body at the same time like diagonal
walkers, they find it easier to move both limbs on one side of the body at the same
time.
(3) B ounders. Normal pattern for most of the long-bodied, short-legged weasel
family such as marten, fisher, and mink. Bounders walk by reaching out with the
front feet and bringing the back feet up just behind them
(4) G allopers. Normal pattern for rabbits, hares, and rodents (except wide-body
beaver, muskrat, marmot, and porcupine). As these animals move, they push off
with their back feet, hit with their front feet, and bring their back feet into
position. Tree dwelling gallopers will land with their front feet side by side, while
ground dwelling gallopers will land with the front feet at a diagonal.
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i. G nawing. All animals will chew on vegetation: some as a food source, while
predators need certain vitamins. Gnawings can be on trees (cambium layer) or on
vegetation.
j. S cat. Scat is actual animal droppings.
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k. S ign. Any disturbance of the natural condition which reveals the presence or passage
of animals, persons, or things. Examples of sign include stones that have been
knocked out of their original position, overturned leaves showing a darker underside,
sand deposited on rocks, drag and scuff marks, displaced twigs, and scuff marks on
trees.
l. S poor. The actual track or trail of an animal, which can be identified as to size,
shape, type and pattern. This word is generally interchanged with track. Spoor is
broken down into two segments: aerial and ground.
2. R eading Spoor. Unless a clearly visible ground spoor is readable, interpretations must be
made in order to determine “what animal made this?” Prior to ever attempting to read spoor,
one must be thoroughly knowledgeable about what animals are in the area.
a. The first step is to look at the gait. This will generally narrow down the species.
b. The next step is determined which animal family the track belongs to.
(WSVX.02.13b)
(1) C at Family. Bobcat, Lynx, and Mountain Lion (Cougar). 4 toe pads, no
visible claw print. It moves with a sense of purpose and direct registers its
paws. Its heel pad is much more defined than one from a dog.
CAT FAMILY
(2) D og Family. Fox, Coyote, and Wolves. Visible claw print, 4 toe pads. No
sense of purpose, except fox, which steps like a cat and likes depressions.
Heel pad is much rounder.
DOG FAMILY
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(3) R abbit Family. The main difference between rabbits and hares (which include
the jackrabbit) is that rabbits are born almost hairless and with eyes closed,
while hares are born with a thick coat of fur, open eyes, and an ability to run
very soon afterwards. They have four toes with relatively enormous hind feet
as compared to their front.
RABBIT FAMILY
(4) R odent Family. Voles, Mice, Rats, Chipmunks, Squirrels, Woodchucks,
Muskrats, & Beaver. Track size varies greatly because of the different
species, but one fact remains, all have 5 toe prints on their rear feet, while
having 4 toe prints on their front feet.
RODENT FAMILY
(5) Weasel Family. Weasel, Mink, Marten, Fisher, Skunks, Otter, Badger,
Porcupine, & Wolverine. All have 5 toe prints.
WEASEL FAMILY
(5) R accoon, Opossums, & Bear. All have 5 toe prints while looking like a
baby’s hand print.
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RACCOON, OPOSSUM, & BEAR
c. After the family is known, using various clues will help identify the species.
(WSVX.02.13c)
(1) If the tracker is educated on the behavior and habits of animals, he can
determine the individual species. This information can be used for better
employment of traps and snares. The following is an example.
(a) Walking along a creek bank, you notice a set of tracks that have five
toe prints for both front and back feet with visible claw prints. This
information tells you the prints belong to the weasel family. The tracks
have a bounding gait pattern, which eliminates wide-bodied animals
such as badger, skunk, porcupine, and wolverine. Because the tracks
are approximately the size of a dime, you have eliminated marten and
fisher. The tracks are following the stream bank for some distance,
stopping at small holes along the bank’s edge. Knowing that weasels
like grassy meadows, you can determine that the track is probably
made by a mink.
3. A ge Determination. (WSVX.02.13d) It is very critical to be able to determine track age.
Each area and climate will vary in the effects of aging tracks, so practice, experimentation,
and experience is vital in that area. The following factors deteriorate all tracks and must be
factored.
a. Weather - Last snow or rain, fog, and dew.
b. Sun.
c. Wind.
d. Soil content - hard, sandy, firm, or moist.
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e. T rack Erosion. All tracks will erode over a given period of time. The key to snow
track erosion is the amount of sunlight and temperature the track has been exposed to.
The following timetable can be used as a general guideline.
(1) Minutes to an hour Transference is noticed around the outer edges on
top of the snow pack.
Track edges are sharp and clean
(2) 1-3 hours
Transferred snow has melted, leaving small pock
marks on top of the snow.
Track edges are slightly rounded
(3) 4-24 hours
Pock marks on top of snow pack have disappeared.
Track edges are rounded, inside track walls are firm.
(4) 24-72
Top layer of snow pack is angling down towards
track.
Track is beginning to fill in and will have a “S”
curve.
f. A ging Scat. All scat dries on the inside first. Therefore, relatively wet scat on the
outside could be old. The only way to determine the age is by analyzing the inside.
When assessing scat, care must be taken to avoid the possibility of contracting
disease.
4. S ize Estimation. (WSVX.02.13e) Although there is no exact method to determine actual
unit size, an approximation can be made.
a. U p to a Squad. It is possible to count basket marks, if on skis. The track is generally
clean and straight. It is possible to identify multiple ski and/or snow shoe tracks.
b. S quad to Platoon Size. If on skis, basket marks are difficult to distinguish from each
other and may look like a small ditch. The track is somewhat clean and straight, but
maybe a half-a-width wider than normal (i.e., 3 ski tracks or 3 snow shoes tracks
wide).
c. P latoon to Company Size. The track is sloppy and wide, possibly 2-3 times wider
than normal. The edges of the track are destroyed at bends and curves.
5. Tracking.
a. The best time to track is early in the morning or late in the afternoon due to the height
of the sun to cast shadows. When reading spoor, always place it between yourself and
the sun.
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b. Do not move past the last sign until you have found the next sign, this is called “sign
cutting” and will be discussed later. In training, always try to find every track.
c. Once the initial track is found, completely document and sketch it for future
reference. This sketch will prevent you from following the wrong track later on.
Record the following information.
d. D etermining Direction. This generally is not a problem with animals. Man’s overthe-
snow equipment may confuse a tracker. All forward movement will displace snow
forward, or referred to as “fluffing”. This fluffing is the key. As it begins to melt,
pockmarks will be left on the level snow pack.
(1) F luffing.
(2) B ackward Snow Shoes. Inexperienced personnel may believe that walking
backwards in snow shoes will fool someone. This type of activity is extremely
exhausting and will not confuse an experienced tracker.
WALKING BACKWARDS IN SNOW SHOES
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(3) S kier. As the ski pole is planted and the ski moves forward, the basket will
also angle forward, causing the basket to dig into the snow, leaving an indent
on the forward edge indicating direction. The point of the ski pole will also
contact the snow before the pole is planted, making a line pointing away from
the direction.
SKIING DIRECTION
(4) S nowmobile and tracked vehicles. Fluffing and direction determination is
difficult to determine with snowmobile and tracked vehicles. The tracks will
compress snow inside the track, forming plates. These plates are the keys to
determining direction. At ground level, the vast majority of plates will face
the direction of travel, although a small amount will face in the opposite
direction.
DETERMING TRACKED VEHICLE DIRECTION
e. T racking Teams. If tracking teams are available, “sign cutting” can speed up the
tracking process.
(1) All tracking teams (minimum of two) must document and sketch the initial
track.
(2) The initial team continues to track until another tracking team has positively
found the same track further ahead on the trail. The last track is marked for
future reference.
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(3) The second team assumes the responsibility of locating each track until they
have been radioed by the first team that “they have found the track”. This is
“sign cutting”.
(4) “Sign cutting” is accomplished by making large sweeping arcs ahead of the
primary tracking team until the track is located at which time the teams
change roles by “leap frogging”.
(5) If the track is lost or misidentified, the teams will move back to the last
marked track.
HYPOTHETICAL SEARCH
f. D elaying a tracker or tracking teams. If you are being tracked, your primary concern
is to gain as much distance between yourself and the tracker. The more distance you
gain, the more time to enable you to create devices to discourage a tracker.
(1) C reate simple pathguards along your trail. An experienced tracker will not
pick up things along the trail because of the possibility of being “booby
trapped”. If he notices possible traps, he will use more caution and slow his
pace.
(2) U se caution when moving along the trail. When traveling, make it difficult
for the tracker to find your tracks.
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(a) Although this is difficult in snow, staying in the tree line will reduce
the possibility of being discovered by aircraft.
(b) Do not brush up against snow covered saplings and large branches.
When the snow is missing, the green foliage is like a billboard.
(3) Backfill a ll tracks leading towards your bivouac. When in a small unit, or the
tactical situation dictates, backfill your jump off point with snow. This is
accomplished by filling some type of bag with snow from your bivouac site
and completely filling in all holes from the main track until no longer seen
from the main track. Make sure that the filler snow is completely blended in
with the top layer of the snow pack.
REFERENCE:
1. David Scott Donelan, Tactical Tracking Operation, 1998
2. Tom Brown, Field Guide to Nature Observation and Tracking, 1983
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