MILITARY SURVIVAL MANUAL:VOL 8

UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS
Mountain Warfare Training Center
Bridgeport, California 93517-5001
WSVX.02.14
2/6/05
STUDENT HANDOUT
SURVIVAL MEDICINE
TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE In a cold weather mountainous environment, execute
survival medicine techniques, in accordance with the references. (WSVX.02.14)
ENABLING LEARNING OBJECTIVES
(1) Without the aid of references, list in writing the requirements for maintenance of
health, in accordance with the reference. (WSVX.02.14a)
(2) Without the aid of references, list the in writing the environmental injuries, in
accordance with the reference. (WSVX.02.14b)
(3) Without the aid of references, define in writing the definition of hypothermia, in
accordance with the reference. (WSVX.02.14c)
(4) Without the aid of references, list in writing the general considerations for medevac
procedures, in accordance with the reference. (WSVX.02.14d)
(5) Without the aid of references, execute preventive measures against wildlife diseases,
in accordance with the reference. (WSVX.02.14e)
OUTLINE
1. REQUIREMENTS TO MAINTAIN HEALTH. Maintenance of health is the first step in
preventing injuries. The three requirements are: (WSVX.02.14a)
A. WATER
(1) A person can not survive without water for more than a few days. Your body
loses water through normal body processes (sweating, urinating, and
breathing). During normal activity the kidneys excrete 1 to 2 quarts of water
per day and a person evaporates . 5 to quart per day. Other factors, such as
heat exposure, cold exposure, intense activity, high altitude, burns, or illness,
can cause your body to lose more water. Water intake is critical in preventing
illness.
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B. FOOD
(1) The body can live several weeks without food. However, without an adequate
supply to stay healthy your mental and physical capabilities will deteriorate
rapidly. Food supplies the body with the necessary nutrients and energy to
survive.
(2) Food sources are plants, animals, and fish.
(a) F iber. Fiber prevents irritable bowel syndrome. In the Falklands
campaign the British had a major constipation and diarrhea problem.
This was largely caused by dehydration and a low fiber diet. Grasses
and pine needles are a good source of dietary fiber.
(b) V itamins. Vitamins are essential to metabolic functioning of the body
and cold weather compounds this function. Our bodies cannot make
vitamins so we must provide them in our diet. Most edible plant life
contains many different vitamins. Associated illnesses from long term
deficiency are Scurvy (vitamin C) a physical disease and Beriberi
(vitamin B1) a mental disease. Vitamins can be found in the cambium
layer of trees, pine needles, and stinging nettle.
(c) M inerals. The mineral that we are primarily concerned with is Iron.
Iron deficiency causes a 9% decrease in heat energy production. Iron
acts as a thermo regulator. Consuming only 1/3 RDA of iron results in
a 29% greater heat loss during cold exposure. Animal blood,
dandelions, stinging nettle, and marrow provide the major source of
iron. Ensure these foods are properly prepared.
(d) C alories. To produce energy, the body uses calories. Proteins, fats, or
carbohydrates produce calories. Of these three, certain ones produce
better energy than others do. Animal meat is an excellent source for
caloric intake, although nuts from pinecones can supplement it.
1. P rotein. Proteins are a reparative food of complicated
molecules composed of chains of amino acids. There are
numerous kinds of amino acids which cannot be synthesized by
the body and thus must be consumed in the diet. A pure protein
diet can cause fatalities in 3-8 weeks from Rabbit Starvation, a
term used for living on a relatively fat free rabbit diet. Protein
can be found in dandelions, nuts, and meats.
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2. F at. Fats serve as the main storage form of energy. Fats produce
energy and heat. Fats are best obtained from bone marrow, liver, or the
stomach portion of fish
3. C arbohydrates. Carbohydrates are known as the quick energy food.
They produce lots of heat. They are stored in the liver and muscles.
These organs are not large and can be markedly depleted by fasting for
as short as 24 hours. Cattails, nuts are a source for carbohydrates.
C. PERSONAL HYGIENE
(1) Cleanliness is an important factor in preventing infection and disease. It becomes
even more important in a survival situation.
(2) The areas to pay special attention to are the feet, hands, armpits, crotch, and hair.
Visual and physical inspections should be conducted daily. Hand and finger nails
should be kept as clean as possible to prevent infection of mucous membrane.
(a) Soap (lye) can be made from animal fat and ashes.
(b) Sun bath
(3) Teeth are another important area to keep clean. Brush your teeth each day either with
a toothbrush, or if you don't have one, make a chewing stick.
(a) A chewing stick is made out of a twig about 6 to 8 inches long. Chew one end of
the stick to separate the fibers. Now you can brush your teeth.
2 . F IVE WAYS THE BODY LOSES HEAT
A. R adiation: is direct heat loss from the body to its surroundings. If the surroundings
are colder than the body, the net result is heat loss. A nude man loses about 60%
of his total body heat by radiation. Specifically, heat is lost in the form of infrared
radiation. Infrared targeting devices work by detecting radiant heat loss.
B. C onduction: is the direct transfer of heat from one object in contact with a colder
object.
(1) Most commonly conduction occurs when an individual sits or rests directly
upon a cold object, such as snow, the ground, or a rock. Without an insulating
layer between the Marine and the object (such as an isopor mat), one quickly
begins to lose heat. This is why it's important to not sit or sleep directly on cold
ground or snow without a mat or a pack acting as insulation.
C. C onvection: is heat loss to the atmosphere or a liquid.
Air and water can both be thought of as "liquids" running over the surface of the
body. Water or air, which is in contact with the body, attempts to absorb heat from
the body until the body and air or water is both the same temperatures. However,
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if the air or water is continuously moving over the body, the temperatures can
never equalize and the body keeps losing heat.
D. E vaporation . Heat loss from evaporation occurs when water (sweat) on the
surface of the skin is turned into water vapor. This process requires energy in the
form of heat and this heat comes from the body.
(1) This is the major method the body uses to cool itself down. This is why you
sweat when you work hard or PT. One quart of sweat, which you can easily
produce in an hour of hard PT, will take about 600 calories of heat away from
the body when it evaporates.
E. R espiration. When you inhale, the air you breathe in is warmed by the body and
saturated with water vapor. Then when you exhale, that heat is lost. That is why
breath can be seen in cold air. Respiration is really a combination of convection
(heat being transferred to moving air by the lungs) and evaporation, with both
processes occurring inside the body.
3. P HYSICAL RESPONSES TO HEAT. When the body begins to create excess heat, it
responds in several ways to rid itself of that heat.
A. Initially, the blood vessels in the skin expand, or dilate. This dilation allows more
blood to the surface where the heat can more easily be transferred to the
surroundings.
B. Soon afterwards, sweating begins. This contributes to heat loss through convection
and evaporation.
4. P HYSICAL RESPONSES TO COLD. Almost the opposite occurs as with heat.
A. First, blood vessels at the skin surface close down, or constrict. This does two
things:
(1) Less blood goes near the surface of the body so that less heat is lost to the
outside.
(2) More blood goes to the "core" or the center of the body, to keep the brain,
heart,lungs, liver, and kidneys warm. This means fingers and toes tend to get
cold.
B. If that is not enough to keep the body warm, the next step is shivering. Shivering
is reflexive regular muscular contractions, this muscular activity causes heat
production. As mentioned before, shivering can only last for a short time before
exhaustion occurs. With shivering you will either warm up, as usually occurs, or
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continue to get colder and start to become hypothermic. Hypothermia will be
discussed later.
5. E NVIRONMENTAL INJURIES (WSVX.02.14b) are cold weather injuries,
dehydration, and altitude related illnesses.
A. C OLD WEATHER INJURIES:
1) Hypothermia (MSVX.02.14c) is the state when the body’s core temperature falls
to 95 degrees Fahrenheit or less. It is the number one killer of people in a
survival situation. A common belief that extremely cold temperatures are
needed for hypothermia to occur is not true. Most cases occur when the
temperature is between 30 and 50 degrees Fahrenheit. This is the normal
temperature range at MWTC, except during the harshest of winter.
a) C auses of Hypothermia. The ways in which the body generates and loses
heat has been discussed earlier. Quite simply, hypothermia occurs when
heat loss from the body exceeds the body's ability to produce heat.
Contributing factors include:
 Ambient temperature. Outside air temperature.
 Wind chill. This only affects improperly clothed individuals.
 Wet clothing.
 Cold water immersion.
 Improper clothing.
 Exhaustion.
 Alcohol intoxication, nicotine and drugs such as barbiturates and
tranquilizers.
 Injuries. Those causing immobility or major bleeding, major burn and
head trauma.
b ) S igns and symptoms of Hypothermia
 The number one sign to look for is altered mental status; that is, the
brain is literally getting cold. These signs might include confusion,
slurred speech, strange behavior, irritability, impaired judgment,
hallucinations, or fatigue.
 As hypothermia worsens, victims will lose consciousness and
eventually slip into a coma.
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 Shivering. Remember that shivering is a major way the body tries to
warm itself early on, as it first begins to get cold. Shivering stops for 2
reasons:
 The body has warmed back up to a normal temperature range.
 The body has continued to cool. Below 95F shivering begins to
decrease and by 90F it ceases completely.
 Obviously, continued cooling is bad. So if a Marine with whom you
are working, who was shivering, stops shivering, you must determine
if that is because he has warmed up or continued to cool.
 A victim with severe hypothermia may actually appear to be quite
dead, without breathing or a pulse. However, people who have been
found this way have been successfully "brought back to life" with no
permanent damage. So remember, you are not dead until you are
warm and dead.
c) P revention of Hypothermia
 Obviously, prevention is always better (and much easier) than
treatment.
 Cold weather clothing must be properly warm and cared for.
 Keep your clothing as dry as possible.
 If your feet are cold, wear a hat. Up to 80% of the body's heat can
escape from the head.
 Avoid dehydration. Drink 6 - 8 quarts per day.
 Eat adequately.
 Avoid fatigue and exhaustion.
 Increase levels of activity as the temperature drops. Do not remain
stationary when the temperature is very low. If the tactical situation
does not permit moving about, perform isometric exercises of
successive muscles.
 Use the buddy system to check each other for signs/symptoms of hypothermia.
d) T reatment of Hypothermia.
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 Make the diagnosis.
 Prevent further heat loss.
 Remove the victim from the environment (i.e., into a shelter or snow
cave).
 Insulate the victim.
 Rewarm the victim by:
*Zip two sleeping bags together.
*Pre-warm the bag by a stripped Marine.
*Place the victim in the bag with 2 stripped Marines inside
on both sides of the victim.
 Medevac if possible.
e) Other Points to Remember.
 Fluids. If the victim is mildly hypothermic, he may be given hot wets.
Otherwise give him nothing by mouth.
 Avoid, if possible, excessive movement of the victim, as his heart may
stop beating if it is jarred.
 Major Wounds. Apply first aid to major wounds first, before
attempting to re-warm the victim. Re-warming a victim who has bled
to death does little good.
 Never give alcohol to hypothermia victims.
 Even after you have started re-warming a victim, he must be constantly
monitored. Don't forget about him.
2) F ROSTBITE Frostbite is the actual freezing of tissues. When in a survival
situation, rewarming a severe frostbitten area will not help. It is best to wait for
rescue and medical attention.
a) P revention of Frostbite. Frostbite is an entirely preventable injury.
 Dress in layers. Keep comfortably cool. If you begin to become
uncomfortable, add layers.
 Keep clothes dry. If clothing (especially socks and gloves) become
wet, change them. This may mean you have to change sock 4-5 times a
day.
 Dress properly. If the wind is blowing, wear the correct protective
layer.
 Avoid dehydration. When dehydrated, the amount of blood available to
warm your fingers and toes goes down, increasing the risk of frostbite.
 Avoid Starvation. Remember - Food is Fuel - and the body uses that
fuel to make heat.
 Leadership must ensure that preventive measures are taken.
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b) S igns and Symptoms of Frostbite.
 Ears, nose, fingers and toes are affected first.
 Areas will feel cold and may tingle leading to....
 Numbness which progresses to...
 Waxy appearance with skin stiff and unable to glide freely over a joint.
c) T reatment of Frostbite. Frostbite is classified into three different degrees:
Frosting, Superficial Frostbite, and Deep Frostbite.
 Frosting will revert to normal after using the technique of body
heat rewarming.
 Hold the affected area, skin to skin for 15 minutes.
*Rewarm face, nose, and ears with hands.
*Rewarm hands in armpits, groin or belly.
*Rewarm feet with mountain buddy’s armpits or belly.
 If affected area cannot be rewarmed in 15 minutes, Superficial
Frostbite or Deep Frostbite is suspected.
Do not attempt to further rewarm
Splint the affected area.
Protect the affected area from further injury.
Medevac as soon as possible.
DO NOT RUB ANY COLD INJURY WITH SNOW.
Do not massage the affected area.
Do not rewarm with stove or fire: a burn injury may result.
Loosen constricting clothing.
Avoid tobacco products.
d) T reatment of Superficial or Deep frostbite. Any frostbite injury, regardless of
severity, is treated the same – evacuate the casualty and re-warming in the
rear. Unless the tactical situation prohibits evacuation or you are in a survival
situation, no consideration should be given to re-warming frostbite in the
field. The reason is something-called freeze – thaw – re-freeze injury.
 Freeze – Thaw – Re-freeze injury occurs when a frostbitten extremity
is thawed out, then before it can heal (which takes weeks and maybe
months) it freezes again. This has devastating effects and greatly
worsens the initial injury.
 In an extreme emergency it is better to walk out on a frostbitten foot
than to warm it up and then have it freeze again.
 Treat frozen extremities as fractures - carefully pad and splint.
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 Treat frozen feet as litter cases.
 Prevent further freezing injury.
 Do not forget about hypothermia. Keep the victim warm and dry.
 Once in the rear, a frostbitten extremity is re-warmed in a water bath,
with the temperature strictly maintained at 101F - 108F.
3 ) S NOW BLINDNESS
a. D efinition. Sunburn of the cornea.
b. C auses of Snow Blindness. There are two reasons Marines in a winter
mountainous environment are at increased risk for snow blindness.
 High altitude. Less ultraviolet (UTV) rays are filtered out, UV rays are
what cause snow blindness (as well as sunburn). So at altitude, more
UV rays are available to cause damage.
 Snow. The white color of snow reflects much more LTV rays off of
the ground and back into your face.
c. S igns and Symptoms of Snow Blindness.
 Painful eyes.
 Hot, sticky, or gritty sensation in the eyes, like sand in the eyes.
 Blurred vision.
 Headache may be severe.
 Excessive tearing.
 Eye muscle spasm.
 Bloodshot eyes.
d. P revention of Snow Blindness. Prevention is very simple. Always wear
sunglasses, with UV protection. If sunglasses are not available, then field
expedient sunglasses can be made from a strip of cardboard with horizontal
slits, and charcoal can be applied under the eyes to cut down on reflection of
the sun off the snow.
e. T reatment of Snow Blindness.
 Evacuation, when possible.
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 Patch the eyes to prevent any more light reaching them.
 Wet compresses, if it is not too cold, may help relieve some of the
discomfort.
 Healing normally takes two days for mild cases or up to a week for
more severe cases.
4) TRENCHFOOT / IMMERSION FOOT
a) D efinition. This is a cold - wet injury to the feet or hands from prolonged
(generally 7 - 10 hours) exposure to water at temperatures above freezing.
b) C auses of Trench foot/Immersion Foot. The major risk factors are wet, cold
and immobility.
c ) S igns and Symptoms of Trench foot/Immersion Foot.
 The major symptom will be pain. Trench foot is an extremely painful
injury.
 Trench foot and frostbite are often very difficult to tell apart just from
looking at it. Often they may both be present at the same time. Signs
include:
 Red and purple mottled skin.
 Patches of white skin.
 Very wrinkled skin.
 Severe cases may leave gangrene and blisters.
 Swelling.
 Lowered or even absent pulse.
 Trench foot is classified from mild to severe.
d) P revention of Trench foot/Immersion Foot is aimed simply at preventing cold,
wet and immobile feet (or hands).
 Keep feet warm and dry.
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 Change socks at least once a day. Let your feet dry briefly during the
change, and wipe out the inside of the boot. Sock changes may be
required more often.
 Exercise. Constant exercising of the feet whenever the body is
otherwise immobile will help the blood flow.
e) T reatment of Trench foot/Immersion Foot.
 All cases of trench foot must be evacuated. It cannot be treated
effectively in the field.
 While awaiting evacuation:
The feet should be dried, warmed, and elevated.
The pain is often severe, even though the injury may appear mild; it
may require medication such as morphine.
 In the rear, the healing of trench foot usually takes at least two months,
and may take almost a year. Severe cases may require amputation.
Trench foot is not to be taken lightly.
B . D EHYDRATION
1. D ehydration is a deficit of total body water. Dehydration will compound the
problems faced in a survival situation. Dehydration is the second leading cause
of all deaths in a survival situation.
a) S ymptoms. When dehydrated, the following signs and symptoms will appear:
 Headache and nausea.
 Dizziness and fainting.
 Cramps, both abdominal and extremity.
 Weakness and lethargy.
 Dark urine with a very strong odor.
b) P revention. Prevention is the key to prevent dehydration. The following are
basic guidelines for the prevention of dehydration:
 Always drink water when eating. Water is used and consumed as a part of
the digestion process. If you have plenty of food but no water – Do not eat
until a source of water can be found.
 Conserve energy. Pace yourself.
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 Drink 6-8 quarts of water per day when available. In other words,
continually drink through out the day. Don’t wait until you are
dehydrated.
 Monitor the color of your urine.
 Don't rely on thirst as an indicator.
2. Heat related illnesses. The following illnesses will appear from dehydration:
1. H eat syncope. Heat syncope is feinting due to vaso-dilation from the heat.
2. H eat exhaustion. Heat exhaustion occurs when body salt losses and
dehydration from sweating are so severe that a person can no longer
maintain adequate blood pressure. Heat exhaustion can lead to heat
stroke.
a) Symptoms include; headaches, nausea, dizziness, fatigue, and
fainting.
3. H eat stroke. Heat stroke is a failure of the body's cooling mechanisms that
rid the body of excessive heat build up.
a ) S igns and symptoms
Symptoms are the same as heat exhaustion . The signs include
delirious or coma, pinpoint pupils, flushed skin, sweating may or
may not be present.
b) H eat cramps. Heat cramps are painful spasms of skeletal muscle as
a result of body salt.
c) All of these illnesses can be detrimental to your survival. Dress
properly, rest and adequate water intake can help prevent these
illnesses.
C . A LTITUDE RELATED ILLNESSES:
1. A cute Mountain Sickness. Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS) is a self-limiting
illness due to the rapid exposure of an unacclimatized individual to high altitude
(i.e., helicopter crash on a mountain). Approximately 25% of individuals who
ascend rapidly to 8,000 – 9,000 feet will develop AMS. Virtually, all unacclimatized
persons who rapidly ascend to 11,00 – 12,000 feet will develop
AMS.
(a) Signs and symptoms include; apathy, dizziness, easily fatigued, nausea,
decreased appetite, headache. Can be misdiagnosed as dehydration. If
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adequate fluid intake is maintained and headache still persists rule out
dehydration.
2. H ACE. HACE or High Altitude Cerebral Edema is swelling of the brain
(a) Sign and symptoms are similar to AMS and accompanied by bizarre behavior,
hallucinations, confusion, and severe cases – coma.
3. HAPE. High Altitude Pulmonary Edema is the filling of the lungs with fluid.
(a) Signs and symptoms include; persistent cough with pink frothy sputum, shortness
of breath, disorientation, fainting, cool and clammy skin, blue lips
(1) T reatment Descend, Descend, and Descend. HACE and HAPE can result in
death.
(2) P revention Gain elevation slowly. 10,000 feet move 1000 feet per day over
14,000 move no faster than 500 – 1,000 feet per day. Rest and acclimatize
your body.
A . C ARBON MONOXIDE POISONING
1. D efinition. Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a heavy, odorless, colorless, tasteless gas
resulting from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels. CO kills through asphyxia even
in the presence of adequate oxygen, because oxygen-transporting hemoglobin has a
210 times greater affinity for CO than for oxygen. What this means is that CO
replaces and takes the place of the oxygen in the body causing Carbon Monoxide
poisoning.
2. S igns/Symptoms. The signs and symptoms depend on the amount of CO the victim
has inhaled. In mild cases, the victim may have only dizziness, headache, and
confusion; severe cases can cause a deep coma. Sudden respiratory arrest may occur.
The classic sign of CO poisoning is cherry-red lip color, but this is usually a very late
and severe sign, actually the skin is normally found to be pale or blue.
CO poisoning should be suspected whenever a person in a poorly ventilated area
suddenly collapses. Recognizing this condition may be difficult when all members
of the party are affected.
3. T reatment. The first step is to immediately remove the victim from the contaminated
area.
a) Victims with mild CO poisoning who have not lost consciousness need fresh air
and light duty for a minimum of four hours. If oxygen is available administer it.
More severely affected victims may require rescue breathing.
b) Fortunately, the lungs excrete CO within a few hours.
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c) P revention. Ensure there is adequate ventilation when utilizing a fire near your
shelter.
6. MEDICAL AID. Unfortunately, during a survival situation, a corpsman may not always be
available to render assistance. Therefore, the survivor must be knowledgeable in basic first aid as
taught in the Marine Battle Skills Training Handbook.
A Four Life Saving Steps
1) Start the breathing.
2) Stop the bleeding.
3) Treat the wound.
4) Check for shock.
B. Wounds. Wounds are actual breaks in the integrity of the skin. Wounds can be
caused by accident or by animals. These wounds are most serious in a survival situation,
not only because of tissue damage and blood loss, but also because of infection. By
taking proper care of the wound you can reduce the chance of a debilitating infection.
C. Animals. Prevention of an animal bite is best accomplished through knowledge of
behavior, personalities, and patterns.
1) Animals generally give ample warning of their intentions, which are to repel the
intruder or permit its escape. Animals that act out of character and approach
humans should be considered rabid and avoided.
2) Tearing, cutting, and crushing injuries are combined in animal bites.
Always look for secondary injuries.
B. D. First Aid. Whether the wound was caused by accident or by animal, the
treatment remains the same.
1) Early cleansing of the wound reduces the chance of bacterial infection and is
extremely effective in removing rabies and other viruses. Cleanse by
irrigation. Bleeding wounds also helps the irrigation process initially.
2) Open wound management is best described by the "open treatment" method.
Do not try to suture or close the wound. This will seal any dirt or infection
into the wound. As long as the wound can drain it will usually not become
life threatening.
a) Maggots
b) Super glue
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c) Shunt
3) T ourniquet in a survival situation. If no rescue or medical aid is likely for
over 2 hours, an attempt to SLOWLY loosen the tourniquet may be made 20
minutes after it is applied:
a) Ensure pressure dressing is in place.
b) Ensure bleeding has stopped.
c) Loosen tourniquet SLOWLY to restore circulation.
d) Leave loosened tourniquet in position in case bleeding resumes.
e) Bandaging is meant to protect the wound from foreign objects (i.e.,
dirt).
f) As with any injury to the body you must increase water intake, more so
with an open wound.
E. Herbal Medicines
1) Consider using herbal medicines only after proper training and when you lack or have
limited medical supplies.
2) W ARNING Some herbal medicines are dangerous and may cause further damage
or even death.
7. CASUALTY EVACUATION. Casualty evacuation in a cold weather mountainous
environment will require a well thought out plan prior to conducting. Poorly planned evacuations
will possibly result in additional casualties, lost time, and equipment damage. In a group survival
situation expedient litter will have to be constructed in order to transport the patient effectively.
A. G eneral Considerations. (WSVX.02.14d) The following considerations are critical
for planning a successful evacuation. A useful acronym to use is “APASSNGG”.
1) A pply Essential First Aid. (i.e., splints, pressure bandage, etc.)
2) P rotect the Patient form the Elements. Provide the casualty with proper
insulation and ensure that he is warm and dry.
3) A void Unnecessary Handling of the Patient.
4) S elect the Easiest Route. Send scouts ahead if possible, to break trails.
5) S et Up Relay Points and Warming Stations. If the route is long and arduous,
set up relay points and warming stations to switch stretcher-bearers and assess
the casualty.
6) N ormal litter teams must be augmented in Arduous Terrain.
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7) G ive Litter Teams Specific Goals to work towards. This job is extremely
tiring, both physically and mentally.
8) G ear. Ensure all of the patient’s gear is kept with him throughout the
evacuation.
8. WILDLIFE DISEASES. (WSVX.02.14e) When handling animals, whether dead or alive,
individuals must use preventive measures against possible exposure to wildlife diseases.
Although the possibility of disease is remote, certain signs may indicate that an animal may be
diseased. The following are some of the more common diseases found in the United States
and throughout the world.
A. H antavirus Pulmonary Syndrome. Hantavirus, or HPS, is a serious respiratory illness
that was first recognized in 1993 in an outbreak in New Mexico and Arizona. It is
caused by a virus that is carried by a common field rodent called the deer mouse.
1) M ethod of Transmission. The virus is shed in the droppings, urine, and saliva
of the deer mouse. The virus is transmitted to humans when the material dries,
becomes airborne and is inhaled.
2) S igns & Symptoms. The disease begins with flu-like symptoms 3 to 45 days
after exposure. The disease can rapidly progress into a life-threatening lower
respiratory illness characterized by the flooding of the lungs with fluid.
3) T reatment. No cure or vaccine is yet available against infection. The sooner
after infection medical treatment is sought, the better the chance of recovery.
4) P revention. Mice should not be handled; rodent dens should not be disturbed.
Package food so that rodents do not crawl all over it. Do not occupy shelters
that may have contained rodents.
B. P lague. The cause of plague is Yersinia pestis, a bacterium that is maintained in nature
through a complex flea-rodent cycle.
1) M ethod of Transmission. Infection in humans results by flea bites, direct contact
with plague-infected rodents, or direct contact with affected non-rodent hosts such
as rabbits, hares, cats, and occasionally other animals.
2) S igns & Symptoms. Infection in humans results in severe disease, with a fatality
rate of over 50% in untreated cases. An abnormal swelling in the lymph nodes is
usually present.
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3) T reatment. Infected people must seek medical treatment.
4) P revention. Animal noted with fleas should be avoided. In a survival situation, a
killed animal should be immediately submerged into a cool water source until all
the fleas are remove by water or have died.
C. T ick Borne Diseases.
1) L yme Disease. Infection occurs most often between May and September. In some
cases, a characteristic skin rash may develop at the site of the tick bite. The rash
may expand to a diameter of 5 inches or more, and there may be an accompanying
flu-like illness. If left untreated, infection can lead to chronic disease characterized
by neurologic impairment, cardiac problems, or arthritis.
2) R ocky Mountain Spotted Fever. The incubation period in humans is 2-14 days.
Initial symptoms are flu-like and commonly include fever, headache, muscle and
joint pain, nausea, and vomiting. A rash may appear. The fatality rate in cases that
are treated with antibiotics is about 5% and up to 25% that are untreated.
3) T reatment. Infected people must seek medical treatment.
4) P revention. Daily body inspections should be conducted to remove all ticks.
D. F ood Borne Diseases. Food borne illness, frequently called “food poisoning,” is
acquired by eating food that is contaminated with microbes or their toxins. Live
animals may carry the agent, or contamination may occur from another source during
processing or preparation of the food.
1) B otulism. Botulism probably is the most widely known and is generally caused by
improper storage of meats. Symptoms may begin with vomiting and diarrhea but
proceed to the characteristic impaired vision and descending paralysis. Botulism
can be fatal.
2) S almonella. The bacteria are found in the intestinal tracts and feces of a wide
range of animals including poultry, swine, cattle, and household pets. Salmonella
maybe fatal.
3) T richinosis. Trichinosis is caused by a parasite contained within the muscle tissue.
Most common carriers are wild swine and bear. Thorough cooking of meats will
destroy the parasite.
4) T ularemia. Discovered in Tulare County, California. Tularemia has been reported
in over 45 species of vertebrates; however, the disease most often involves ticks. It
is also commonly found in rabbits and rodents. It is transmittable by uncooked
meats or handling contaminated meats with open sores. Tularemia is a lifethreatening
disease found throughout the world and can only be treated with
antibiotics.
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5) T reatment. Consuming charcoal will aid in reducing the body’s absorption rate.
Medical treatment should be sought if available.
6) P revention. Prevention of food borne diseases can be accomplished by:
a) Promptly dress game.
b) Avoid or minimize contamination by gastrointestinal contents.
c) Cook food thoroughly. Internal cooking temperatures should be 165
degrees F or more.
d) Eat cooked foods immediately.
e) Store preserved foods properly.
E. A nimal Scat. Certain parasites found on scat can infect humans, if the scat is handled
unprotected. Raccoon Roundworm can be found in the scat for at least 30 days, while
Fox Roundworm will last only approximately 7 days on their scat. Both of these
parasites can possibly infect human, which is almost fatal.
REFERENCE:
1. FM 21-76, Survival, 1996.
2. Paul S. Auerbach, Wilderness Medicine, 3rd Edition, 1995.
3. William R. Davidson, Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases in the United States, 2nd Edition,
1997
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